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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yuz | Yuracare | 2,675 (2000 W. Adelaar). Ethnic population: 3,333 (2000 W. Adelaar). | Beni and Cochabamba departments, scattered primarily along the Chapare River. | Mansinyo, Soloto. | All ages. | NT: 1999. | NT: 1999. | |
| yva | Yawa | 6,000 (1987 SIL). | Central Serui Island, Serui Waropen, Serui Selatan, Timur Barat, 8 north coast villages, 2 interior villages, 18 south coast villages. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | Used in the home, market, and religious services. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | |
| yvt | Yavitero | Extinct. | Central Serui Island, Serui Waropen, Serui Selatan, Timur Barat, 8 north coast villages, 2 interior villages, 18 south coast villages. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | The last known speaker died in 1984. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | |
| ywa | Kalou | 1,370 (2003 SIL). | Sandaun Province, northwest of Hauna in the Sepik Iwam area. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | The last known speaker died in 1984. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | |
| ywl | Yi, Western Lalu | 38,000 (2002). | Western Yunnan, in Baoshan, Shidian, Zhenkang, Longling, and Luxi counties. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | The last known speaker died in 1984. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | |
| ywm | Yi, Wumeng | 40,000 (2002). | Northwestern Yunnan, in Zhaotong, Yongshan, Daguan, and Ludian counties. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | The last known speaker died in 1984. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Bible portions: 1989–1999. | |
| ywn | Yawanawa | 310 (1994 SIL). | Acre. 1 village of 100 people, with the remainder living along a river. | Central Yawa (Mora), West Yawa, South Yawa, North Yawa, East Yawa. | Vigorous. Portuguese is used only with outsiders. | Bible portions. | Bible portions. | |
| ywq | Yi, Wuding-Luquan | 210,000 (2002). | Yunnan, in Luquan, Wuding, Yongren, Lufeng, Yuanmou, Qujing, Xundian, and Huize counties, and in Huili county of southern Sichuan. | Luquan Naso, Wuding Naisu. Degree of similarity between dialects may need investigation. Also, degree of similarity with Naluo Yi needs investigation. | Vigorous. Portuguese is used only with outsiders. | Pollard script is still in use, though many speakers, especially younger ones, have not learned to read it. There is also a traditional orthography for Wuding-Luquan Yi, related to but distinct from the traditional orthographies used by some other Yi languages. Few people can read the traditional orthography. NT: 1948. | Pollard script is still in use, though many speakers, especially younger ones, have not learned to read it. There is also a traditional orthography for Wuding-Luquan Yi, related to but distinct from the traditional orthographies used by some other Yi languages. Few people can read the traditional orthography. NT: 1948. | |
| ywr | Yawuru | 30 (2001 K. Hosokawa). | Western Australia, coast south of Broome and inland. | Northern Yawuru, Southern Coastal Yawuru, Eastern Inland Yawuru. Related to Nyikina, Warrwa, Ngumbarl, Nimanburru, Jabirrjabirr, Nyulnyul, Bardi, Jawi. | None use it as primary language. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| ywt | Yi, Western | 300,000 (1991 EDCL). | Western Yunnan, in Weishan, Fengqing, Midu, Changning, Lincang, Yunxian, Jingdong, Jinggu, Yongde, Shidian, Nanjian, Yangbi, Zhenkang, Yunlong, Zhenyuan, Binchuan, Eryuan, and Heqing counties. | Northern Yawuru, Southern Coastal Yawuru, Eastern Inland Yawuru. Related to Nyikina, Warrwa, Ngumbarl, Nimanburru, Jabirrjabirr, Nyulnyul, Bardi, Jawi. | Bilingualism in Chinese is reported to be high, especially among young people. | Yi syllabary not used. | Yi syllabary not used. | |
| ywu | Yi, Wusa | 200,000. | Western Guizhou and Eastern Yunnan, in Weining, Shuicheng, Hezhang, Nayong, Xuanwei, Huize, and Yiliang counties. | Weining Yi, Hezhang Yi, Hen-Ke Yi. | Bilingualism in Chinese is reported to be high, especially among young people. | Yi syllabary not used. | Yi syllabary not used. | |
| yww | Yawarawarga | 1 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | South Australia and Queensland, north of Cooper Creek, southeast of Lake Yamma Yamma. | Related to Midhaga, Karuwardi, Marulta. | Bilingualism in Chinese is reported to be high, especially among young people. | Yi syllabary not used. | Yi syllabary not used. | |
| yym | Yi, Yuanjiang-Mojiang | 230,000 (2002). | Yunnan, in Yuanyang, Mojiang, Jiangcheng, Simao, Honghe, Lüchun, Jinping, Pu'er, Yuanjiang, and Xinping counties. | Yuanyang Nisu, Mojiang Nisu. | Bilingualism in Chinese is reported to be high, especially among young people. | Yi syllabary not used. | Yi syllabary not used. | |
| yyu | Yau | 144 (2003 SIL). | Sandaun Province. 1 village. | Related to Olo, Yis, Ningil, Valman. Lexical similarity 63% with Olo and Yis. | Bilingualism in Chinese is reported to be high, especially among young people. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| zaa | Zapotec, Sierra de Juárez | 4,000 (1990 census). 150 monolinguals. | Northern Oaxaca. | Related to Olo, Yis, Ningil, Valman. Lexical similarity 63% with Olo and Yis. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 25%, 1 25%, 2 25%, 3 18%, 4 5%, 5 2%. | Dictionary. NT: 1970. | Dictionary. NT: 1970. | |
| zab | Zapotec, San Juan Guelavía | 28,000 in Mexico (1990 census). Population total all countries: 28,500. | Central Oaxaca. Also spoken in USA. | Jalieza Zapotec, Teotitlán del Valle Zapotec, San Martín Tilcajete Zapotec. 20% intelligibility of Zegache (closest). Jalieza has 99% intelligibility of San Juan Guelavía. Teotitlán del Valle has 100% intelligibility of San Juan Guelavía, but San Juan Guelavía only 59% of Teotitlán del Valle. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 10%, 2 10%, 3 20%, 4 10%, 5 10%. | Literacy rate in second language: 10%. Dictionary. NT: 1995. | Literacy rate in second language: 10%. Dictionary. NT: 1995. | |
| zac | Zapotec, Ocotlán | 15,000 (1993 SIL). | Ocotlán, central Oaxaca around Santiago Apóstol. | 67% intelligibility of Tilquiapan (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 30%, 2 40%, 3 10%, 4 6%, 5 4%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. NT: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. NT: 1983. | |
| zad | Zapotec, Cajonos | 5,000 in Mexico (1993 SIL). | Northern Oaxaca, towns of San Pedro Cajonos, San Francisco Cajonos, San Mateo Cajonos, San Miguel Cajonos, San Pablo Yaganiza, Xagacía. Also spoken in USA. | Cajonos Zapotec, Yaganiza-Xagacía Zapotec. Yaganiza and Xagacía are similar. Major differences between those two towns and the other four towns; adaptation of literature will probably be needed. 73% intelligibility of San Pedro Cajonos with Zoogocho (closest other Zapotec). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 20%, 2 20%, 3 30%, 4 10%, 5 10%. Many nearly monolingual speakers in Yaganiza. | The school is bilingual. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1982–2002. | The school is bilingual. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1982–2002. | |
| zae | Zapotec, Yareni | 6,000 (1982 SIL). | Northern Oaxaca. | 80% intelligibility of Sierra de Juárez Zapotec. Different from Aloapam Zapotec. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 20%, 1 40%, 2 25%, 3 10%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | |
| zaf | Zapotec, Ayoquesco | 876 (1990 census). 9 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Santa María Ayoquesco, Santa Cruz Nexila, San Andrés Zabache, and San Martín Lachila. | Closest to Ocotlán Zapotec (23% intelligibility). | Most vigorous in Nexila where 52% of the population speak Zapotec. All ages in Santa Cruz Nexila. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | |
| zag | Zaghawa | 77,834 in Chad (1993 census). Population includes 3,000 Bideyat. | East, Biltine Prefecture, Iriba Subprefecture, and Borkou Ennedi Tibesti Prefecture, Ennedi Subprefecture. | Tuer-Gala (Bideyat, Baele, Anna, Awe, Terawia, Beria), Kobe-Kapka, Dirong-Guruf. | The majority use Chadian Arabic as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | |
| zah | Zangwal | 100 (1993). | Bauchi State, Bauchi LGA. | Tuer-Gala (Bideyat, Baele, Anna, Awe, Terawia, Beria), Kobe-Kapka, Dirong-Guruf. | The majority use Chadian Arabic as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 75%. Bible portions: 1966–1990. | |
| zai | Zapotec, Isthmus | 85,000 (1990 census). | Tehuantepec and Juchitán, Oaxaca. | 18% intelligibility of Santa María Petapa (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 40%, 2 20%, 3 10%, 4 10%, 5 10%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1972–2002. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1972–2002. | |
| zal | Zauzou | 2,300 (1999 Sun Hongkai). About 10% are monolingual, mainly older adults. Ethnic population: 2,500 (1999 Sun Hongkai). | Northwestern Yunnan Province, Lanping and Lushui counties. | Bijilan, Wupijiang. | Vigorous. All domains. All ages. Used less by young people and children. Concern about possible loss. About 75% also speak Chinese, about 40% Lisu, about 9% Bai. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| zam | Zapotec, Miahuatlán | 80,000 (1982 SIL). | South central Oaxaca, Cuixtla. | Bijilan, Wupijiang. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 5%, 2 30%, 3 4%, 4 1%, 5 50%. | Dictionary. NT: 1971. | Dictionary. NT: 1971. | |
| zao | Zapotec, Ozolotepec | 6,500 (1990 census). People in the towns of San Marcial, San Gregorio, San Esteban, and Santo Domingo are monolingual. | Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, east side of highway 175, about halfway between Miahuatlán and coast. The majority of towns with 'Ozolotepec' in the name are included, however, not San Francisco Ozolotepec. | San Marcial Ozolotepec Zapotec, San Gregorio Ozolotepec Zapotec. 87% intelligibility of Cuixtla (Central Miahuatlán), 84% of Candelaria Loxicha (Northeastern Pochutla). Cuixtla literature not acceptable here. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 5%, 2 30%, 3 4%, 4 1%, 5 50%. | Bible portions: 2000. | Bible portions: 2000. | |
| zaq | Zapotec, Aloápam | 2,100 (2004). | Northern Oaxaca, San Miguel Aloápam, San Isidro Aloápam. | Distinct from Teococuilco Zapotec. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 5%, 2 30%, 3 4%, 4 1%, 5 50%. | Bible portions: 1996–2001. | Bible portions: 1996–2001. | |
| zar | Zapotec, Rincón | 29,246 (2000 WCD). | Northern Oaxaca. | 64% intelligibility of Choapan (closest). Temaxcalapan may not be part of this language. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 35%, 2 10%, 3 3%, 4 2%, 5 0%. | NT: 1971. | NT: 1971. | |
| zas | Zapotec, Santo Domingo Albarradas | 5,500 (1980 census). Population includes 1,500 to 2,000 in Santo Domingo (1993 SIL). All Zapotec languages: 422,937. | Central Oaxaca, Santa María Albarradas, Santo Domingo Albarradas, San Miguel Albarradas. | 39% intelligibility of Mitla (closest). Santa Catarina Albarradas may need separate literature. | Since 1979 speakers in Santo Domingo have shown increasing preference for Zapotec, but in Santa María it is reported to be diminishing in use. Some immigrant Mixe have learned the local Zapotec, but few Zapotec have learned Mixe. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 3%, 1 17%, 2 40%, 3 30%, 4 9%, 5 1%. Speakers use Spanish for communication with Mitla Zapotec speakers. Spanish is generally used between them and the Mixe in mixed marriages. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 80%. Videos. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 80%. Videos. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| zat | Zapotec, Tabaa | 2,000 (1992 SIL). | Oaxaca. | 39% intelligibility of Mitla (closest). Santa Catarina Albarradas may need separate literature. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 30%, 2 13%, 3 5%, 4 2%, 5 0%. | NT: 1981. | NT: 1981. | |
| zau | Zangskari | 12,006 (2000 WCD). | Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh district, Zanskar tahsil, south of Leh in the Zaskar Mountains, between Himalayas and Indus River Valley. Possibly Tibet. | Closer to Changthang than to Ladakhi. | Some also use the Leh dialect of Ladakhi. | Literacy rate in second language: Speakers in Ladakh have the highest rate. Tibetan script. Bible portions: 1945–1951. | Literacy rate in second language: Speakers in Ladakh have the highest rate. Tibetan script. Bible portions: 1945–1951. | |
| zav | Zapotec, Yatzachi | 2,500 in Mexico (1990 census). | Villages of Yatzachi el Bajo, Yatzachi el Alto, Xoochixtepec, Yohueche, Zoochina, Zoochila, Yalina, north central Oaxaca. Also spoken in USA. | 90% intelligibility of Zoogocho on narrative, 85% of Cajonos (Southern Villa Alta) and Yalálag, and somewhat intelligible with Solaga and Tabaa. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 10%, 2 40%, 3 25%, 4 14%, 5 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1971. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1971. | |
| zaw | Zapotec, Mitla | 19,500 (1983 SIL). Less than 1% monolingual. Population includes 4,500 in Matatlán (1983 SIL). | Mitla Valley, Oaxaca. | Santiago Matatlán Zapotec (Matatlán Zapotec). 75% intelligibility of San Juan Guelavía (closest). | Vigorous in some families. All domains among most adults. Oral use in local administration, commerce, some in media, in religious services. Young adults use Zapotec half the time, most children use more Spanish than Zapotec. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 5%, 1 30%, 2 30%, 3 15%, 4 15%, 5 5%. Speakers are shifting to Spanish. Maybe 10% can speak some English. | Literacy rate in first language: 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 90%. 10% can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1981. | Literacy rate in first language: 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 90%. 10% can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1981. | |
| zax | Zapotec, Xadani | 338 (1990 census). | Oaxaca, Pochutla District, San Miguel del Puerto Municipio, Santa María Xadani, 16 towns or villages. | Santiago Matatlán Zapotec (Matatlán Zapotec). 75% intelligibility of San Juan Guelavía (closest). | 122 speakers older than 50 years, 90 between 35 and 50, 1 monolingual (1990). Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 90%. 10% can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1981. | Literacy rate in first language: 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 90%. 10% can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1981. | |
| zay | Zayse-Zergulla | 17,800 (1998 census). 7,530 monolinguals including 7,371 Zayse, 159 Zergulla. Population includes 10,172 Zayse, 7,625 Zergulla. Ethnic population: 11,232 (1998 census) including 10,842 Zayse, 390 Zergulla. | Omo Region, west of Lake Chamo. | Zergulla (Zergullinya), Zayse. Close to the Gidicho dialect of Koorete. | Vigorous. Approximately 7,000 ethnic Gamo speak Zergulla as first language, which is reflected in the population figure. | Literacy rate in second language: 32.5%. | Literacy rate in second language: 32.5%. | |
| zaz | Zari | 20,746 (2000 WCD). Population includes 20,000 Zakshi (1995 CAPRO), 1,000 Boto. | Bauchi State, Toro, Dass, and Tafawa Balewa LGAs, and Plateau State. | Zakshi (Zaksa), Boto (Boot, Bibot), Zari (Kopti, Kwapm). In the Zari dialect cluster in the Barawa language cluster. | Vigorous. Approximately 7,000 ethnic Gamo speak Zergulla as first language, which is reflected in the population figure. | Literacy rate in second language: 32.5%. | Literacy rate in second language: 32.5%. | |
| zca | Zapotec, Coatecas Altas | 5,000 (1993 SIL). 100 monolinguals. | Ejutla, Oaxaca. | Closest to San Gregorio Ozolotepec (83% intelligibility) and Miahuatlán (Cuitla). | Vigorous. Approximately 7,000 ethnic Gamo speak Zergulla as first language, which is reflected in the population figure. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. | |
| zea | Zeeuws | 220,000. | The Netherlands: Province of Zeeland, Province of South Holland. (Every island in the Rhine-Scheldt Delta has its own dialect.). | Goerees, Flakkees, Schouws, Duvelands, Fluplands, Bevelands, Walchers, Axels, Kezands. | Speakers also use Dutch. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | |
| zen | Zenaga | 200 to 300 (1998). | Between Mederdra and the Atlantic coast, southern Mauritania. | The language is related to other Berber languages in basic structure though specific features are quite different. | Few adult speakers. Speakers also use Hassaniyya. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | |
| zhb | Zhaba | 7,700 (1995). | Zhamai District of Yajiang (Nyagquka) County and Zhaba District of Daofu (Dawu) County, which are in the Ganzi (Garzê) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of western Sichuan. | Close to Queyu. | Few adult speakers. Speakers also use Hassaniyya. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | |
| zhi | Zhire | No estimate available. | Kaduna State, Kachia and Jema'a LGAs. | Related to Hyam. | Few adult speakers. Speakers also use Hassaniyya. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | Literacy rate in second language: 99% Dutch. Bible portions: 1980–2003. | |
| zia | Zia | 3,943 (1978 McElhanon). Population includes 3,000 Zia (1991 SIL), 943 Mawae. | Morobe Province, Lae District near the mouth of the Waria River. | Zia, Mawae. Lexical similarity 68% with Yekora (closest). | Few adult speakers. Speakers also use Hassaniyya. | Literacy rate in first language: 75% to 100%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1982. | Literacy rate in first language: 75% to 100%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1982. | |
| zib | Zimbabwe Sign Language | No estimate available. | Morobe Province, Lae District near the mouth of the Waria River. | Zimbabwe School Sign, Masvingo School Sign, Zimbabwe Community Sign. The sign language used in Masvingo is different from that used in other schools. The sign language used in schools and that used by adults outside is different. It is not clear if they are inherently intelligible to each other. There is some desire for standardization among educators. There are rumors of relationships to sign languages from Germany, Ireland, Australia, England, South Africa. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | Literacy in English is better among some deaf people than others, but generally limited. It is quite limited in Shona, mainly known by those from Masvingo. TV. | Literacy in English is better among some deaf people than others, but generally limited. It is quite limited in Shona, mainly known by those from Masvingo. TV. | |
| zik | Zimakani | 1,500 (1990 UBS). | Western Province, south end of Lake Murray. | Zimakani, Bagwa (Begua, Mbegu), Dea. Related to Kuni (Boazi). | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. NT: 1989. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. NT: 1989. | |
| zim | Mesme | 20,120 (1993 census). | Southwest, Tandjilé Prefecture, Kélo Subprefecture, south and west of Kélo, between Kélo and Pala. | Bero, Zamre. Mesmé is a separate but related language to Pévé, Ngueté, and Herdé. They call themselves 'Zime', but that name is commonly used by outsiders to refer to all languages and dialects of this group. The name 'Mesmé' is used by outsiders to distinguish this group from the other groups they call 'Zime'. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zir | Ziriya | No estimate available. | Bauchi State, Toro LGA, Kere and Ziriya. | Bero, Zamre. Mesmé is a separate but related language to Pévé, Ngueté, and Herdé. They call themselves 'Zime', but that name is commonly used by outsiders to refer to all languages and dialects of this group. The name 'Mesmé' is used by outsiders to distinguish this group from the other groups they call 'Zime'. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| ziz | Zizilivakan | 2,800 in Cameroon (2002). | Adamawa State, Mubi LGA, Jilbu town, near Cameroon border. | Bero, Zamre. Mesmé is a separate but related language to Pévé, Ngueté, and Herdé. They call themselves 'Zime', but that name is commonly used by outsiders to refer to all languages and dialects of this group. The name 'Mesmé' is used by outsiders to distinguish this group from the other groups they call 'Zime'. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zka | Kaimbulawa | 1,500 (1991 SIL). | Southeast Sulawesi, part of Siompu Island. | Lantoi, Kambe-Kambero. Not a dialect of Muna or Cia-Cia. Lexical similarity 96% with Lantoi, 75% with Busoa, 64% to 74% with Muna dialects, 64% with Muna, 70% with Liabuku, 66% with Cia-Cia, 58% with Wolio, 45% with Kaledupa. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zkp | Kaingáng, São Paulo | Extinct. | São Paulo. | Lantoi, Kambe-Kambero. Not a dialect of Muna or Cia-Cia. Lexical similarity 96% with Lantoi, 75% with Busoa, 64% to 74% with Muna dialects, 64% with Muna, 70% with Liabuku, 66% with Cia-Cia, 58% with Wolio, 45% with Kaledupa. | Deaf people go to different schools, each using a different sign language. There have been elementary schools for deaf children since the 1940s. The Ministry of Education has pushed to open more spaces for deaf students in special classes in local schools. There is little research on the sign language. The deaf community is quite strong in terms of individual identity. They live their lives around deaf social networks and activities. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zkr | Zakhring | 300 (2002). | Arunachal Pradesh, Lohit District, hilly terrain and banks of the Lohit River in the Walong and Kibithoo area. | Close to Tibetan (Singh) and Miju-Mishmi. Not related to Zaiwa in Yunnan. | Speakers also use Hindi, Nefamese, or Tibetan. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zma | Manda | 25 (1983 Black). | Northern Territory, coast southwest of Anson Bay, southwest of Darwin. | Close to Tibetan (Singh) and Miju-Mishmi. Not related to Zaiwa in Yunnan. | Speakers also use Kriol or English. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmc | Margany | 1 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland, between Quilpie and Wyandra, Bulloo River and Paroo River. | Close to Tibetan (Singh) and Miju-Mishmi. Not related to Zaiwa in Yunnan. | Speakers also use Kriol or English. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmd | Maridan | 20 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Southwest of Darwin, north of Moyle River, east of Magadige. | Close to Tibetan (Singh) and Miju-Mishmi. Not related to Zaiwa in Yunnan. | Speakers also use Kriol or English. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zme | Mangerr | 1 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Arnhem Land around Oenpelli. | Intelligible with Urningangg (Black). | Speakers also use Kriol or English. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmg | Marti Ke | 10 (2001 Alexander). Ethnic population: 100. | Wadeye, Northern Territory, coast south from Moyle River estuary to Port Keat, southwest of Darwin. | Close to Marringarr, Marrathiel. | Second-language speakers 50. Speakers are older adults. Some speakers also use Murrinh Patha, English, or Kriol. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmh | Makolkol | 7 (1988 SIL). | East New Britain Province, Gazelle Peninsula. | Close to Marringarr, Marrathiel. | Second-language speakers 50. Speakers are older adults. Some speakers also use Murrinh Patha, English, or Kriol. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmi | Negeri Sembilan Malay | 300,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Southeast of Kuala Lumpur, Ulu Muar District. | Related to Minangkabau in Sumatra, Indonesia. | Second-language speakers 50. Speakers are older adults. Some speakers also use Murrinh Patha, English, or Kriol. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmj | Maridjabin | 20 (1970 Oates). | Northern Territory, inland from Anson Bay, south of Mariyedi and Manda, southwest of Darwin. | May be intelligible with Marithiel or Maringarr. | Speakers also use Kriol. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zmk | Mandandanyi | 1 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland, around Roma from Maranoa River to near Miles and Wandoan. | May be intelligible with Marithiel or Maringarr. | Speakers also use Kriol. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| zml | Madngele | 15 to 20 (1983 Black). | Northern Territory, south of Darwin and Daly River, west bank of Muldiva River. | Related to Kamu and Yunggor, which may be extinct. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| zmm | Marimanindji | 15 (1983 Black). | Northern Territory, south of Darwin and Daly River, west of Muldiva River, near headwaters. | Related to Kamu and Yunggor, which may be extinct. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| zmo | Molo | 100 (1988 M.L. Bender). | At Jebel Malkan, near the Berta language, south of the Blue Nile, near the Ethiopian border. | Related to Kamu and Yunggor, which may be extinct. | Reported to be bilingual in Arabic and Berta. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| zmr | Maranunggu | 15 to 20 (1983 Black). | Southwest of Darwin, inland from Anson Bay, east of Manda. | Related to Kamu and Yunggor, which may be extinct. | Young people speak Kriol. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| zmt | Maringarr | 30 to 40 (1983 Black). | Northern Territory south of Moyle River, southwest of Darwin. | Maranunggu (Marranunga, Maramanunggu, Merranunggu, Warrgat). May be intelligible with other Bringen languages. Lexical similarity 40% with Mullukmulluk and Murrinh-Patha. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| zmu | Muruwari | 1 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland and New South Wales from Bollon, Dirranbandi, Weilmoringle, Bourke, almost to Cunnamulla. | Maranunggu (Marranunga, Maramanunggu, Merranunggu, Warrgat). May be intelligible with other Bringen languages. Lexical similarity 40% with Mullukmulluk and Murrinh-Patha. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| zmv | Mbariman-Gudhinma | 3 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland, Cape York Peninsula, southwest coast of Princess Charlotte Bay. | Maranunggu (Marranunga, Maramanunggu, Merranunggu, Warrgat). May be intelligible with other Bringen languages. Lexical similarity 40% with Mullukmulluk and Murrinh-Patha. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| zmy | Mariyedi | 20 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Inland from Anson Bay, south of Manda, southwest of Darwin. | Maranunggu (Marranunga, Maramanunggu, Merranunggu, Warrgat). May be intelligible with other Bringen languages. Lexical similarity 40% with Mullukmulluk and Murrinh-Patha. | Speakers also use Kriol. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| zmz | Mbandja | 9,055 in Congo (2000). | Extreme north of Likouala Region, close to Oubangui River. | Kala, Gbado. | Lingala is the lingua franca; in some areas up to 60% speak it and 40% understand it in varying degrees. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| zna | Zan Gula | 5,000 (2003 SIL). | Melfi Prefecture, Chinguil Subprefecture, northwest of Lake Iro. | Zan, Chinguil. Lexical similarity 46% with Bon Gula. | The majority use Chadian Arabic as second language. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| zne | Zande | 350,000 in Sudan (1982 SIL). | Southern Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo (primarily, and Central African Republic in an elongated semicircle with Uele River as its base). Some projections south. | Dio, Makaraka (Odio). | Speakers also use Sango. | Bible: 1978. | Bible: 1978. | |
| zng | Mang | 500 in China. | Yunnan, Jinping County, Hani-Yi Autonomous Prefecture. | Dio, Makaraka (Odio). | Speakers also use Sango. | Bible: 1978. | Bible: 1978. | |
| znk | Manangkari | Extinct. | Cobourg Peninsula, Northern Territory. | Close to Iwaidja. | Speakers also use Sango. | Bible: 1978. | Bible: 1978. | |
| zns | Mangas | 100 (1995 CAPRO). | Bauchi State, Bauchi LGA. Mangas town. | Close to Iwaidja. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Bible: 1978. | Bible: 1978. | |
| zoc | Zoque, Copainalá | 10,000 (1990 census). | Copainalá, Chiapas. | Ocotepec, Ostuacán. 83% intelligibility of Francisco León (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 0%, 1 5%, 2 5%, 3 30%, 4 50%, 5 10%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1967. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1967. | |
| zoh | Zoque, Chimalapa | 4,500 (1990 census). 15 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Santa María Chimalapa and San Miguel Chimalapa. | Ocotepec, Ostuacán. 83% intelligibility of Francisco León (closest). | Speakers also use Spanish. | Bible portions. | Bible portions. | |
| zom | Zome | 9,112 in Manipur (2001 census). | Manipur, Chandel, Singngat subdivision and Sungnu area; Churachandpur districts; Assam. | Paite Chin, Zome, and Simte are almost identical. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | |
| zoo | Zapotec, Asunción Mixtepec | 100 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 2,476 (1990 census). | Southwest of Oaxaca City in central Oaxaca, Asunción Mixtepec and another town. | 22% intelligibility of Ayoquesco (closest), and 3% of San Pedro el Alto. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | |
| zoq | Zoque, Tabasco | 40 (1971 García de León). Ethnic population: 367 (1960 census). | Municipio of Jalapa de Méndez, Ayapa, Tabasco. | 22% intelligibility of Ayoquesco (closest), and 3% of San Pedro el Alto. | Speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | Literacy rate in second language: 33%: males 42%, females 24% (1981 census). | |
| zor | Zoque, Rayón | 2,000 to 2,300 (1990 census). 20 monolinguals (1990 census). Ethnic population: 10,400 (1990 census). | Northwest Chiapas, Rayón and Tapilula. | Distinct from other Zoque. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 25%, 1 25%, 2 50%, 3 0%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| zos | Zoque, Francisco León | 20,000 (1990 census). | Mezcalapa, Chiapas. | Chapultenango, San Pedro Yaspac. Close to Copainalá. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 35%, 2 10%, 3 10%, 4 3%, 5 2%. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | |
| zpa | Zapotec, Lachiguiri | 5,000 (1977 SIL). | Oaxaca, north of Isthmus, 15 km southwest of Guevea de Humboldt. Includes towns in neighboring municipios, such as Santa María Totolapilla, Jalapa, and Magdalena. | 62% intelligibility in Lachixila (Northeastern Yautepec) and Juchitán (Isthmus; closest). | Although speakers have routine proficiency in Spanish, there is a strong preference for Zapotec. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | |
| zpb | Zapotec, Yautepec | 314 (1990 census). | Eastern Oaxaca, San Bartolo Yautepec. | 10% intelligibility of Tlacolulita (closest), no intelligibility of other Zapotec. | 126 speakers between 35 and 50 years of age, 138 over 50, 4 monolinguals over 50 (1990). Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | Dictionary. NT: 1978. | |
| zpc | Zapotec, Choapan | 24,000 (1991 SIL). | North central Oaxaca and Veracruz, including Comaltepec. | 60% intelligibility of Zoogocho (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 25%, 2 30%, 3 20%, 4 12%, 5 3%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| zpd | Zapotec, Southeastern Ixtlán | 6,000 (1992 SIL). | Northern Oaxaca, Santa María Yavesía (center), Carrizal, Latuvi, Benito Juárez, Ixtlán de Juárez, Santa Catarina Lachatao, Llano Grande, La Trinidad, Nevería, San Miguel Amatlán, Capulalpan de Morelos, Santiago Xiacui, Natividad, Guelatao de Juárez. | 63% intelligibility of Atepec (Sierra de Juárez), 43% of Teococuilco. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| zpe | Zapotec, Petapa | 8,000 (1990 census). 220 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, north of the Isthmus, Juchitán District, Santa María Petapa and Santo Domingo Petapa. | 55% intelligibility of Guevea (closest), 34% of Lachiguiri. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| zpf | Zapotec, San Pedro Quiatoni | 14,821 (2000 WCD). | Central Oaxaca, San Pedro Quiatoni, Salinas, Unión Juárez, and nearby settlements. | 76% intelligibility of Mitla; closest. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| zpg | Zapotec, Guevea de Humboldt | 7,000 (1977 SIL). | Eastern Oaxaca. | 49% intelligibility of Lachiguiri (Northwestern Tehuantepec; closest). | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. Bible portions: 1982. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. Bible portions: 1982. | |
| zph | Zapotec, Totomachapan | 259 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 1,009 (1990 census). | Western Oaxaca, 2 towns. | No intelligibility of other Zapotec. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. Bible portions: 1982. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 30%. Bible portions: 1982. | |
| zpi | Zapotec, Santa María Quiegolani | 3,000 (1990 census). | Central Oaxaca. | 60% intelligibility of San Juan Mixtepec (closest). | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| zpj | Zapotec, Quiavicuzas | 4,000 (1990 census). 180 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, northeast corner of Yautepec District, 45 km northeast of Pan American highway, 75 km east of Mitla. San Carlos Yautepec Municipio: Santiago Quiavicuzas; Nejapa de Madero Municipio: San Juan Lachixila, Corral de Piedra, Carrizal; Guevea de Humboldt Municipio: Guadalupe Guevea. | 59% intelligibility of Lachiguiri (Northwestern Tehuantepec; closest). | 40 of the 180 monolinguals are between ages 5 to 9. Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| zpk | Zapotec, Tlacolulita | 135 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 904 (1990 census). | Eastern Oaxaca, Asunción Tlacolulita and San Juan Alotepec. | 15% intelligibility of Lachixila (closest), 10% on Mitla and San Juan Guelavía, 0% on Lachiguiri, Juchitán, Guevea de Humboldt, Petapa, San Juan Mixtepec, and Quiegolani. | 111 speakers are 50 years of age or older (1990). Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| zpl | Zapotec, Lachixío | 6,500 (1990 census). 50% are monolingual. | Western Oaxaca, eastern Sola de Vega, towns of Santa Marma Lachixío, San Vicente Lachixío. | Southwestern Zimatlán dialect speakers need separate literature. 73% intelligibility of San Pedro el Alto, 80% of San Miguel Mixtepec and San Mateo Mixtepec, 99% of San Vicente Lachixío. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral and written use in administration. Some oral use in religion. Oral use in local commerce. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50–60%, 1 20–30%, 2 5–15%, 3 3–8%, 4 2–5%, 5 0%. Spanish used to communicate with outsiders. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1989. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1989. | |
| zpm | Zapotec, Mixtepec | 7,000 (1991 SIL). | Southern Oaxaca. | 80% intelligibility of Santiago Lapaguía (closest). A separate language from San Agustín Mixtepec Zapotec. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 15%, 2 30%, 3 15%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Videos. NT: 1998. | Videos. NT: 1998. | |
| zpn | Zapotec, Santa Inés Yatzechi | 2,235 (1990 census). | Central Oaxaca, Zimatlán District, 40 km south of Oaxaca city, west of Ocotlán de Morelos. | Zaachila. 75% intelligibility of San Antonino Ocotlán (closest). Zaachila may need some separate literature. San Miguel Tilquiapan may be a dialect. | Zapotec is apparently no longer spoken in Santa Ana Zegache, and going out of use in Zaachila. Vigorous use among children in Santa Inés, some of whom are monolinguals (1990). 176 monolinguals. | Bible portions: 1989–1991. | Bible portions: 1989–1991. | |
| zpo | Zapotec, Amatlán | 6,000 (2000 SIL). 30% are monolingual. | Southern Oaxaca, east of Miahuatlán, 3 towns. | Closest to Loxicha. | Vigorous. A few Spanish speakers who live there can speak it. All domains. Oral use in local administration, commerce, oral literature. Some oral and written use in religious services. Written use in stories. All ages. Fluency in Spanish has increased, but people still prefer Zapotec. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 60%, 1 20%, 2 15%, 3 4%, 4 1%, 5 0%. A few can also speak other forms of Zapotec. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.08%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. 500 can read and write it. NT: 2002. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.08%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. 500 can read and write it. NT: 2002. | |
| zpp | Zapotec, El Alto | 900 (1990 census). 29 monolinguals. | Western Oaxaca, San Pedro el Alto, San Antonino el Alto, San Andrés el Alto. | 20% intelligibility of Totomachapan (closest). | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.08%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. 500 can read and write it. NT: 2002. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.08%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. 500 can read and write it. NT: 2002. | |
| zpq | Zapotec, Zoogocho | 1,000 in Mexico (1991 SIL). Population total all countries: 1,400. | Zoogocho, Yalina, Tabehua, and Oaxaca City, Oaxaca, and Mexico City. Also spoken in USA. | Zoogocho, Yalina, Tabehua. 57% intelligibility of Comaltepec (Choapan; closest). Zoogocho is the market town, so most Yatzachi people go there weekly, but Zoogocho people do not understand Yatzachi as well (80%). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 10%, 2 45%, 3 20%, 4 14%, 5 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | |
| zpr | Zapotec, Santiago Xanica | 2,500 (1990 census). | Oaxaca, southeastern Miahuatlán, including four towns: Santiago Xanica, Santa María Coixtepec, San Andrés Lovene, San Antonio Ozolotepec. | 72% intelligibility of San Gregorio Ozolotepec, 70% of Cuixtla (Central Miahuatlán). | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | |
| zps | Zapotec, Coatlán | 500 (1992 SIL). | Southern Oaxaca near Chatino Region, about 7 towns, but mainly in Santo Domingo Coatlán. | 54% intelligibility of Loxicha (closest), 51% of San Gregorio Ozolotepec, 44% of Cuixtla, 29% of Logueche, 16% of San Juan Mixtepec, 1% of Santa Catalina Quierí. | Speakers are reported to be bilingual in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | |
| zpt | Zapotec, San Vicente Coatlán | 2,430 (1990 census). 584 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Ejutla District, 90 km south of Oaxaca city. San Vicente Coatlán, a municipio town. | 75% intelligibility of San Baltázar Loxicha (closest, Northwestern Pochutla), 45% of Santa María Coatlán. | Vigorous. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Dictionary. NT: 1988. |
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