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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| xmz | Mori Bawah | 16,098 (2000 WCD). | Central Sulawesi at the neck of the southeastern peninsula; Petasia and Lembo subdistricts; 24 villages, or parts of villages. Also in south Sulawesi. | Tambe'e, Nahina, Petasia, Soroako, Karonsie. Lexical similarity 73% to 86% with Mori Atas, 75% with Padoe. | Many deaf women do not leave their homes, or do not sign in the streets, so it is difficult to determine numbers. Association Nanane, a school in the north, had about 30 students, ages 4 to 21. MSL used in 3 programs for the deaf. Communities in Rabat, Tangier, and Casa Blanca do not use MSL. Used by USA Peace Corps. Most deaf people cannot read or write or understand Arabic. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| xnb | Kanakanabu | 6 to 8 (2000 Wurm). Ethnic population: 250 (UNESCO). | Central Taiwan around Minchuan village, Sanmin Township, Kaohsiung County. | Tambe'e, Nahina, Petasia, Soroako, Karonsie. Lexical similarity 73% to 86% with Mori Atas, 75% with Padoe. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Bunun, Taiwanese, or Mandarin. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| xnh | Kuanhua | 1,000 (1991). | Jinghong County, Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, southwestern Yunnan Province. | Tambe'e, Nahina, Petasia, Soroako, Karonsie. Lexical similarity 73% to 86% with Mori Atas, 75% with Padoe. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Bunun, Taiwanese, or Mandarin. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| xnr | Kangri | 1,700,000. | Himachal Pradesh, Kangra, Hamirpur, Una districts. | Hamirpuri, Palampuri. Palampuri Kangri has lexical similarity 90% with Bilaspuri and Chambeali, 89% with Mandeali, 83% with Bhattiyali, 80% with MacLeod Ganj Gaddi. | Vigorous. Used at home, work, market. All ages. Educators promote Kangri. Speakers are proud of their language and show interest in reading anything in first language. Acceptability of other Pahari dialects is high. Speakers also use Urdu or Panjabi. Hindi used for communicating with outsiders. Most urban people know Hindi quite well. Very few are fluent in English. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | |
| xns | Kanashi | 1,400 (2002 Chauhan). | Himachal Pradesh, Kullu District, Kullu Tahsil, glen of the Bios Valley, around the village of Malana (Malani). | No intelligibility of any Tibeto-Burman languages of Lahul-Spiti and Kinnaur (Chauhan). | Vigorous. Used at home, work, market. All ages. Educators promote Kangri. Speakers are proud of their language and show interest in reading anything in first language. Acceptability of other Pahari dialects is high. Speakers also use Urdu or Panjabi. Hindi used for communicating with outsiders. Most urban people know Hindi quite well. Very few are fluent in English. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | |
| xod | Kokoda | 3,700 (1991 SIL). | Bird's Head, south coast on Maccluer Gulf, east of Inanwatan. | Kasuweri (Komudago), Negri Besar (Negeri Besar), Tarof. Wurm and Hattori 1981 list Kasuweri and Tarof as separate languages. Komudago and Tarof are closest. Lexical similarity 60% with Kemberano. Kasuweri lexical similarity 86% with Tarof, Negri Besar 82% with Tarof. | Used in the home. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | |
| xoi | Kominimung | 320 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province. | Related to Romkun, Breri, Igana, Akrukay, Itutang, Inapang. | Used in the home. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | |
| xok | Xokleng | 250 (1975). Ethnic population: 784 (2000 WCD). | Santa Catarina, along tributary of the Itajaí River. | Related to Romkun, Breri, Igana, Akrukay, Itutang, Inapang. | Some also use Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | Literacy rate in second language: 70.5%. Devanagari script. Poetry. Radio programs. | |
| xom | Komo | 1,500 in Ethiopia (1975 Bender). | South and west of Kwama. | Koma of Begi, Koma of Daga. | Some also use Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | |
| xoo | Xukurú | Extinct. Ethnic population: 1,800 (1995 SIL). | Pernambuco, Serra de Urubá (Arobá) near the city of Cimbres, Bahía. | Koma of Begi, Koma of Daga. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | |
| xop | Kopar | 229 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | East Sepik Province. | Related to Murik. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | |
| xor | Korubo | 500 (1995 AMTB). | Amazonas. | Possibly Panoan. May be the same as Marúbo, or related to Yanomámi. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | |
| xow | Kowaki | 25 (2000 Wurm). | Madang Province. | Related to Mawak, Pamosu, Musar, Wanambre. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 12.8%. | |
| xpe | Kpelle, Liberia | 487,400 (1991 Vanderaa). | Central. | Dialect differences are slight. Different enough from Kpelle of Guinea to need separate literature. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | NT: 1967. | NT: 1967. | |
| xpn | Kapinawá | Extinct. Ethnic population: 354 (1995 AMTB). | Pernambuco. | Dialect differences are slight. Different enough from Kpelle of Guinea to need separate literature. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | NT: 1967. | NT: 1967. | |
| xra | Krahô | 1,200 (1988 SIL). | Maranhão, southeastern Pará, Tocantins, 5 villages. | Different from Canela, but may be able to use literature adapted from Canela. | Few speakers also use Portuguese. | NT: 1967. | NT: 1967. | |
| xrb | Karaboro, Eastern | 35,000 in Burkina Faso (1995 SIL). Population total all countries: 40,605. | East of the main Ferké to Bobo-Dioulosso road and Banfora, southern Burkina Faso. Comoé Province. Also spoken in Côte d'Ivoire. | Kar averages 70% comprehension by Tenyer and Syer speakers, but the reverse is 30%. | All ages. Some bilingualism in Jula. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| xre | Kreye | 30 (1995 SIL). | Maranhão and Pará. | Kar averages 70% comprehension by Tenyer and Syer speakers, but the reverse is 30%. | All ages. Some bilingualism in Jula. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| xri | Krikati-Timbira | 420 (1995). | Maranhão, southeastern Pará, Tocantins. The Timbira are in Governador Village, Municipality of Amarante. | Krinkati (Karakati), Timbira. The Krikati and Timbira are separate ethnic groups speaking related dialects. | Few speakers also use Portuguese. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| xrw | Karawa | 63 (2003 SIL). | Sandaun Province, Lumi District, Pulwa (Bulawa) village. | Related to Awtuw, Pouye. Lexical similarity 67% with Pouye. | Speakers are shifting to Pouye. In 1995, the children were speaking Pouye as their first language. Pouye speakers consider Karawa to be part of their language. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| xsb | Sambal, Tinà | 70,000 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 70,000. | Luzon, northern Zambales Province, 5 towns, 2 villages in Pangasinan Province, and village of Panitian, Quezon on Palawan Island. | Santa Cruz, Masinloc, Iba. 70% intelligibility of Botolan. | Young people start using it in work situations if they do not go on to higher education; little use among children. All domains among adults. Oral use in local commerce, occasional use in religion and political campaigning. Some letter writing. Speakers are adults. They do not use Sambal around outsiders, but they like it when a few outsiders learn Sambal. All have moderate comprehension of Filipino. Possibly 30% speak some Ilocano. Only Filipino and English taught in school. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | |
| xse | Sempan | 1,000 (1987 SIL). | Middle south coast, between Kokonao and Agats, east of Kamoro and west of Asmat languages. | Close to Kamoro and Nefarpi. | Young people start using it in work situations if they do not go on to higher education; little use among children. All domains among adults. Oral use in local commerce, occasional use in religion and political campaigning. Some letter writing. Speakers are adults. They do not use Sambal around outsiders, but they like it when a few outsiders learn Sambal. All have moderate comprehension of Filipino. Possibly 30% speak some Ilocano. Only Filipino and English taught in school. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | |
| xsh | Shamang | No estimate available. | Kaduna State, Kachia and Jema'a LGAs. | Related to Hyam. | Young people start using it in work situations if they do not go on to higher education; little use among children. All domains among adults. Oral use in local commerce, occasional use in religion and political campaigning. Some letter writing. Speakers are adults. They do not use Sambal around outsiders, but they like it when a few outsiders learn Sambal. All have moderate comprehension of Filipino. Possibly 30% speak some Ilocano. Only Filipino and English taught in school. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. | |
| xsl | Slavey, South | 1,410 (2001 SIL). Ethnic population: 3,600 (1995 M. Krauss). | Great Slave Lake, upper Mackenzie River and drainage in Mackenzie District, northeast Alberta, northwest British Columbia in the communities of Fort Liard, Fort Providence, Fort Simpson, Fort Smith, Hay River, Hay River Dene (reserve), Jean Marie River, Nahanni Butte, Trout Lake, Wrigley and Yellowknife. | North and South Slavey are separate languages. | People older than young people still use South Slavey in smaller, isolated communities, but serious attrition among children and young people. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | |
| xsn | Sanga | 20,142 (2000 WCD). Population includes 1,600 Bujiyel (1995 CAPRO). | Bauchi State, Toro LGA. | Bujiyel. | People older than young people still use South Slavey in smaller, isolated communities, but serious attrition among children and young people. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | |
| xsp | Silopi | 185 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province. | Related to Murupi, Wamas, Rapting, Mosimo, Saruga, Nake, Matepi, Garus, Yoidik, Rempi, Samosa, Utu, Mawan, Baimak, Bagupi, Gal, Garuh, Kamba. | People older than young people still use South Slavey in smaller, isolated communities, but serious attrition among children and young people. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1891. | |
| xsr | Sherpa | 20,000 in India (1997). | West Bengal, Darjeeling District; Sikkim; Arunachal Pradesh. | Solu, Khumbu, Ramechap (Western). 95% comprehension of Solu dialect by Western and Khumbu speakers. Lexical similarity 77% to 92% between Solu and Khumbu dialects; 67% with Jirel; 65% with Helambu Sherpa; 62% with Lowa and Dolpo; 58% with Lhomi and Baraguanle; 57% with Kyerung; 55% with Kutang Bhotia (Nubri) and Walungge; 30% to 35% with Lhasa Tibetan. | Vigorous in villages but not in towns. Use is diminishing. All ages, but children use it infrequently. They are proud of their language, but ashamed that it isn't developed more. In schools children are teased if they use Sherpa. In Kathmandu parents use Nepali with school-age children. Some use Nepali, Tibetan, English, as second language. Lamas are fluent in Tibetan. Guides (men) learn trekkers' languages: German, Korean, French, etc. (SIL 1998). At least 90% speak Nepali (UNESCO). | Literacy rate in first language: 8% to 9%. Literacy rate in second language: 35% (1991 census). In Kathmandu people are about 20% more literate than in Sherpa country. Devanagari and Tibetan scripts; Tibetan script in India. Radio programs. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: 8% to 9%. Literacy rate in second language: 35% (1991 census). In Kathmandu people are about 20% more literate than in Sherpa country. Devanagari and Tibetan scripts; Tibetan script in India. Radio programs. Grammar. | |
| xst | Silt'e | 827,764 (1998 census). Ethnic population: 900,348 (1998 census). | About 150 km south of Addis Ababa. | Enneqor (Inneqor), Ulbarag (Urbareg), Wolane (Walane). Not intelligible with West or North Gurage. 40% or less intelligible with Chaha (Central West Gurage). | 89,042 second-language speakers. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 16.6%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1981. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 16.6%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1981. | |
| xsu | Sanumá | 462 in Brazil (1976 UFM). | Auaris River, Roraima. | Caura, Ervato-Ventuari, Auaris. | In some areas up to 25% of the speakers also use Maquiritare. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 16.6%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1981. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 16.6%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1981. | |
| xsy | Saisiyat | 4,750 (2002 Council of Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan, ROC). | Western mountains, west of the Atayal, Nanchuang Township, Miaoli County and Wufong Township, Hsinchu County. | Taai (North Saiset), Tungho (South Saiset). The dialect differences are mainly phonological and lexical (Li 1978). | 40% to 60% of the ethnic group speaks Saisiyat. Tungho: more active use. Taai: a few speakers, but nearly assimilated to Atayal. A few to half the children speak Saisiyat. Another report says a few children speak some lexical items. People have a mildly supportive attitude toward Saisiyat. Many young people speak Hakka Chinese. Atayal is also used. They live surrounded by the Atayal and the Hakka. Hakka Chinese used for most key domains. | Roman script. | Roman script. | |
| xta | Mixtec, Alcozauca | 10,000 (1994 SIL). 4,000 monolinguals. | Eastern Guerrero, near Metlatonoc, 14 villages. | Xochapa Mixtec, Petlacalancingo Mixtec. 92% intelligibility of Metlatonoc. Metlatonoc has 70% intelligibility of Xochapa. A separate language from Metlatonoc. | 40% to 60% of the ethnic group speaks Saisiyat. Tungho: more active use. Taai: a few speakers, but nearly assimilated to Atayal. A few to half the children speak Saisiyat. Another report says a few children speak some lexical items. People have a mildly supportive attitude toward Saisiyat. Many young people speak Hakka Chinese. Atayal is also used. They live surrounded by the Atayal and the Hakka. Hakka Chinese used for most key domains. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | |
| xtb | Mixtec, Chazumba | 2,477 (1995 census). 32 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, close to the Puebla border, with a few in Puebla. Near Southern Puebla Mixtec. The largest group speaking Mixtec is in Santiago Chazumba. Some other villages with speakers are San Pedro y San Pablo Tequixtepec (in Oaxaca), Zapotitlán, Petlalcingo, and Totoltepec de Guerrero (in Puebla). | 65% inherent intelligibility of Xayacatlán, 53% of Cacaloxtepec, 24% of Chigmecatitlán, 19% of Cuyamecalco (Coatzospan). | 75% of the speakers are scattered over a large area, with most villages having fewer than 15% of the population able to speak Mixtec. A large percentage of the populations of each village no longer speak Mixtec, but speak Spanish. Most speakers older than 50 years. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | |
| xtc | Katcha-Kadugli-Miri | 81,500 (2004 SIL). Population includes 48,864 Kadugli and Katcha, 4,000 Miri (1987 Baumann) and 6,500 Tumma (1956 census). | Northern Sudan, Kordofan Province, in the southern hills of the Nuba Hills area. Katcha is in villages of Katcha, Tuna, Kafina, Dabakaya (Donga), Belanya, and Farouq, a short distance south of Kadugli and southeast of the Miri Hills. Kadugli is also in villages surrounding Kadugli, namely, Murta, Kulba, 'Daalimo, Thappare, and Takko. Miri villages of Miri Bara, Miri Guwa, Umduiu, Nyimodu, Luba, Kadoda, Kya, Tulluk, Hayar al-Nimr, Kuduru, Kasari, and Sogolle lie west of Kadugli. | Katcha (Tolubi, Dholubi), Kadugli (Dakalla, Talla, Dhalla, Toma Ma Dalla, Kudugli, Morta), Miri, Damba, Tumma. R. C. Stevenson treats them as dialects of one language. Ruhlen (1987) and Schadeberg (1989) treat them as separate. Samir Bulus says that Tumma is dialect of Katcha. Lexical similarity 85% among Katcha, Kadugli, and Miri, 88% between Kadugli and Damba. | Speakers also use Sudanese Arabic. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997–2001. | |
| xtd | Mixtec, Diuxi-Tilantongo | 8,500 (1990 census). 300 monolinguals (1990 census). | Oaxaca, 20 towns and villages in the Diuxi and Tilantongo area, Oaxaca City, Puebla City, Mexico City. | 37% intelligibility of Peñoles (Eastern); closer to Nuxaá. | All ages. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 20–30%, 1 20–30%, 2 20–30%, 3 15–30%, 4 0–3%, 5 0–1%. | NT: 2001. | NT: 2001. | |
| xte | Ketengban | 9,968 (2000 WCD). | Scattered slopes in eastern highlands area east of Eipomek and west of Ngalum language near Papua New Guinea border. | Okbap, Omban, Bime, Onya. Lexical similarity 69% with Una. | All domains, church. | Literacy rate in first language: 30% to 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1997. | Literacy rate in first language: 30% to 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1997. | |
| xti | Mixtec, Sinicahua | 1,300 (1990 census). 400 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, San Antonio Sinicahua, Siniyucu, and settlements of Sinicahua Municipio. | Speakers have 75% intelligibility of Yosoyúa, 73% of Ocotepec, 72% of San Miguel el Grande, and 51% of Nduaxico (Northern Tlaxiaco Mixtec). | Speakers have low proficiency in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 30% to 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1997. | Literacy rate in first language: 30% to 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1997. | |
| xtj | Mixtec, San Juan Teita | 550 to 650 (2002 SIL). | Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, 30 km southeast of Tlaxiaco, town of San Juan Teita. | Santa Maria Tataltepec. May be closest to Diuxi Mixtec, but not close enough to any other Mixtec for adequate comprehension. | Most prefer Mixtec for family and informal usage. All ages. Positive language attitude. All ages and sexes speak some Spanish; some women have only basic knowledge, and some young people and men are very fluent. Many children now prefer Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: Possibly 40% in Spanish. They have a bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: Possibly 40% in Spanish. They have a bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 1998. | |
| xtl | Mixtec, Tijaltepec | 3,559 (2000 WCD). 800 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, southeastern Tlaxiaco District, towns of San Pablo Tijaltepec, Santa María Yosoyúa, and all their communities. | Speakers have 89% intelligibility of San Miguel el Grande and Yosoyúa, 82% of San Mateo Peñasco, 81% of Sinicahua and 66% of Teita. | Most prefer Mixtec for family and informal usage. All ages. Positive language attitude. All ages and sexes speak some Spanish; some women have only basic knowledge, and some young people and men are very fluent. Many children now prefer Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: Possibly 40% in Spanish. They have a bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: Possibly 40% in Spanish. They have a bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 1998. | |
| xtm | Mixtec, Magdalena Peñasco | 4,200 (1990 census). 1,050 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, municipios of Santa María, Magdalena Peñasco, San Cristobal Amoltepec, and San Agustín Tlacotepec. Also includes the town of San Mateo Peñasco. | San Agustín Tlacotepec, San Cristóbal Amoltepec Mixtec, San Mateo Peñasco Mixtec, Santo Domingo Heundío Mixtec, San Miguel Achiutla Mixtec. Speakers have 89% intelligibility of San Cristóbal Amoltepec, 76% of Tijaltepec and Sinicahua, 73% of San Miguel el Grande, 72% of Tlacotepec, 68% of Ocotepec, 64% of Nduaxico, 58% of Yucuañe. A distinct language, different from Santiago Amoltepec Mixtec. | Positive language attitude. | Bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 2002. | Bilingual primary school. Bible portions: 2002. | |
| xtn | Mixtec, Northern Tlaxiaco | 14,000 (1990 census). | Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, San Juan Ñumí and Santiago Nundichi municipios; Teposcolula District, San Antonino Monte Verde and San Sebastián Nicananduta municipios. | Monte Verde Mixtec, Yosoñama. | Positive language attitude. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xtp | Mixtec, San Miguel Piedras | 448 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 1,123 (1990 census). | Oaxaca, Nochixtlán District, Yutanduchi de Guerrero. | 49% intelligibility of Estetla (Eastern), 29% of Soyaltepec, Yosondúa, 18% of Peñoles, 15% of Chalcatongo, 13% of Tilantongo, 11% of Chicahua. | A few younger speakers, but most are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xts | Mixtec, Sindihui | 138 (1990 census). | West central Oaxaca. | Distinct from Yutanduchi. | Speakers are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xtt | Mixtec, Tacahua | 585 (1990 census). 78 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Tlaxiaco District, east of Yosondúa, southeast of San Miguel el Grande. | Distinct from Yutanduchi. | 70% of the monolinguals are older adults, none under 35. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xtu | Mixtec, Cuyamecalco | 2,600 (1994 SIL). 72 monolinguals in San Miguel. | Oaxaca, Cuyamecalco, San Miguel Santa Flor. | Close to San Juan Coatzospan. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xty | Mixtec, Yoloxochitl | 2,540 (1994 SIL). | Southeastern Guerrero, San Luís Acatlán Municipio, just south of Tlapanec, and about halfway between Metlatonoc and Ayutla Mixtec; town of Yoloxochitl and possibly a few speakers in Cuanacastitlán. | Metlatonoc has 35% intelligibility of Yoloxochitl, and Ayutla has 30% intelligibility of it. | All domains. There is a bilingual primary school using Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1995–2000. | |
| xua | Kurumba, Alu | 2,500 (1997). | Tamil Nadu, eastern side of Nilgiri Hills. | Lexical similarity 80% between Alu and Pal. | Vigorous. Some speakers also use Tamil, Standard Kannada, or Southern Nonstandard Kannada. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| xub | Kurumba, Betta | 32,000 (2003). | Tamil Nadu, Nilgiri District; Karnataka, Mysore District, north side of Nilgiri Hills, just east of Kerala border; Kerala, Wynad District. | A nonstandard variety of Tamil or Kannada. May be the same as Betta Kuruba in Coorg District. Lexical similarity 59% to 77% among groups that are called 'Betta Kurumba'. | The Central Institute of Indian Languages lists Urali Kurumba as endangered. It is being studied by Annamalai University. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | |
| xuf | Kunfal | 2,000 (2000 M. Brenzinger). | West of Lake Tana. | Related to Awngi. | Most also use Amharic. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | |
| xug | Kunigami | 5,000 (2004). | Central Okinawa; central and northern Okinawa Island, Iheya, Izena, Ie-jima, Sesoko islands. | Nago. Inherent intelligibility is generally impossible, or very difficult, of other Ryukyuan languages and Japanese. Ryukyu languages are 62% to 70% cognate with Tokyo dialect of Japanese. | Older adult speakers can understand and use Japanese. Those 20 to 50 can understand Kunigami, but mainly use Japanese at home and work. The younger the generation, the more fluently they speak Japanese (1981 Hattori in Wurm and Hattori). Those under 20 are mainly monolingual in Japanese (T. Fukuda SIL 1989). | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Favorable attitude toward literacy. Grammar. | |
| xuj | Kurumba, Jennu | 35,000 (1997). | North side of Nilgiri Hills on the border between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, just east of the Kerala border, Mysore and Kodagu districts of Karnataka; Kerala, Wynad District. | May or may not be the same as Jeinu Kuruba, a variety of Kannada. Lexical similarity 61% to 83% among varieties called 'Jennu Kurumba', less than 60% lexical similarity with Betta Kurumba dialects. | Positive language attitude. Speakers have low proficiency in Kannada, Malayalam, or Tamil. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. Attitudes favorable toward literacy. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. Attitudes favorable toward literacy. | |
| xut | Kuthant | 3 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland, southwest Cape York Peninsula, north of Karumba and Normanton. | May or may not be the same as Jeinu Kuruba, a variety of Kannada. Lexical similarity 61% to 83% among varieties called 'Jennu Kurumba', less than 60% lexical similarity with Betta Kurumba dialects. | Positive language attitude. Speakers have low proficiency in Kannada, Malayalam, or Tamil. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. Attitudes favorable toward literacy. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. Attitudes favorable toward literacy. | |
| xuu | Kxoe | 100 in Zambia (1998 Brenzinger). | Western Zambia, east of the Zambesi River near Luzu village, 6 villages. East of Luzu in Sakulinda village; and 250 km to the northwest, in remote areas of southeastern Senaga District, and the 3 settlements Kashesha ki liwanika, Namafumbwana, and Sanze. | ||Xo-Kxoe. | Many in Zambia have given up Khwe to speak the language of their partners and parents. Few speak Lozi, the lingua franca of the area. | Literacy rate in second language: Buga: 15 to 29 years 70% Tswana, 50% English; 30 to 54 years 40% Tswana, 10% English. | Literacy rate in second language: Buga: 15 to 29 years 70% Tswana, 50% English; 30 to 54 years 40% Tswana, 10% English. | |
| xvi | Kamviri | 1,500 to 2,000 in Pakistan plus refugees (1992). | Southern Chitral District, Langorbat or Lamerot, Badrugal, and the Urtsun Valley. | Kamviri, Shekhani. | Some bilingualism in Pashto. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| xwe | Gbe, Xwela | 65,000 (2002 SIL). | Mono Province, Come Subprefecture near Lake Aheme, southernmost part of Bopa Subprefecture; Atlantic Province, Kpomasse and Ouidah subprefectures. | A member of the Gbe language cluster. Lexical similarity 90% with Western Xwla, 85% with Fon, 71% with Gen, 82% with Saxwe, 68% with Aja. | All domains. French is used in schools; Fon, Waci-Gen, or Saxwe are used for nonformal education; French, Fon, or Gen are used in government offices; Gen and some Fon and French are used in churches. Good comprehension of Fon and of Gen. Fon, Waci-Gen, and Saxwe are used for adult literacy depending on the village location. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| xwg | Kwegu | 103 (1998 census). 73 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 173 (1998 census). | Kuchur village on the western bank of the Omo River in southwestern Ethiopia. | Yidinich (Yidinit, Yidi), Muguji. The dialects listed may not be inherently intelligible with Kwegu; it may be a name for several hunter groups. Lexical similarity 36% with Mursi. | Diminishing among adults. 51 second-language speakers. The Kwegu use the Bodi dialect of Me'en or Mursi as second language, depending on the area. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| xwl | Gbe, Western Xwla | 21,000 in Togo (2002 SIL). | Southeastern Togo along the Mono River. | A member of the Gbe language cluster. Lexical similarity 86% with Gun, 84% with Fon, 73% with Gen, 68% with Aja, 90% with Xwela, 88% with Saxwe. | Good comprehension of Gen, comprehension of Fon is good or partial depending on location. Some bilingualism in French. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| xwr | Kwerba Mamberamo | 300 (1993 Doriot). | East of Mamberamo River, in the mountains between the villages of Kwerba, Edifalen, and Marinafalen, south of Kasonaweja. | A member of the Gbe language cluster. Lexical similarity 86% with Gun, 84% with Fon, 73% with Gen, 68% with Aja, 90% with Xwela, 88% with Saxwe. | Vigorous. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| xxk | Ke'o | 40,000 (2001 L. Baird). Ethnic population: 40,000. | South central Flores, east of Ngad'a, south of Nage, south and southeast of the volcano Ebu Lobo. Kecamatans Mauponggo and Nangaroro, Kabupaten Ngada. Bordered to the north by the Nage, to the west by the Ngada, and to the east by the Ende. | Distinct from Nage. Close to Nage, Ngad'a, Ende, Lio, Palu'e, Riung. Closest to Nage. | All domains with Ke'o speakers. Ceremonies, personal letter writing in Ke'o, but Indonesian viewed as the proper language for writing and using with outsiders. All ages. Speakers view Indonesian as the prestige language that children need to speak to get better jobs. They view Nage and Ngada as superior to Ke'o because of a cultural belief that mountain languages are more refined. English is viewed as a very prestigious language. 0.02% are fluent in Indonesian. Ke'o migrants in towns and cities are tending to teach children Indonesian instead of Ke'o. | Literacy rate in second language: 20% Indonesian. Literacy program by government for adults and in schools. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 20% Indonesian. Literacy program by government for adults and in schools. Grammar. | |
| yaa | Yaminahua | 357 in Brazil (1986 SIL). | Acre. | Yaminahua, Chitonahua (Morunahua, Moronahua, Foredafa, Horudahua, Horunahua). Closest to Sharanahua. | All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Grammar. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Grammar. NT: 2003. | |
| yab | Yuhup | 360 in Brazil (1995). | Amazonas, on a tributary of the Vaupés River. Also spoken in Colombia. | Limited intelligibility of Hupdë. Ruhlen and other classify it as related to Puinave. | All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Grammar. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Grammar. NT: 2003. | |
| yac | Yali, Pass Valley | 5,000 (1988 SIL). | Central highlands, east of Angguruk and northwest of Naltya, Jayawijaya, Kurulu, and Kurima. | Pass Valley, Landikma, Apahapsili. Related to Yali of Ninia and Yali of Angguruk. | All ages. | NT: 1977. | NT: 1977. | |
| yad | Yagua | 5,692 in Peru (2000 WCD). 2,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 6,000. | Loreto, northeastern Amazon River Region, from Iquitos to the Brazil border. Some go to urban centers like Iquitos for economic reasons. Some occasionally go into Brazil. Also spoken in Colombia. | 2 dialects. | Official language. All domains. Some use of Yagua in religious ceremonies and services. Eight bilingual Spanish-Yagua schools. Most people along the main rivers are apathetic about Yagua, preferring their children to learn Spanish. Many are monolingual in isolated areas. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 54%, 1 20%, 2 15%, 3 9%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| yae | Pumé | 3,396 (2000 WCD). | Orinoco, Sinaruco, Meta, and Apure rivers, Amazonas and Apure states. | 2 dialects. | Official language. All domains. Some use of Yagua in religious ceremonies and services. Eight bilingual Spanish-Yagua schools. Most people along the main rivers are apathetic about Yagua, preferring their children to learn Spanish. Many are monolingual in isolated areas. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 54%, 1 20%, 2 15%, 3 9%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | Bible portions: 1999. | Bible portions: 1999. | |
| yag | Yámana | 1 (2003). Ethnic population: 100 (2000 W. Adelaar). | Patagonia, Isla Navarino, Puerto Williams, Ukika hamlet. Extinct in Argentina. | Tovar (1961) says it was closest to Qawasqar, and had some relationship to Ona. Earlier there were up to five dialects. | One report says that there are still speakers near the Beagle Canal Naval Base in Chile. Members of the ethnic group now speak Spanish. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | |
| yah | Yazgulyam | 4,000 (1994 UBS). | Along the Yazgulyam River, Gorno-Badakhshan Ao. | Upper Yazgulyam, Lower Yazgulyam. Little dialect difference. | 70% of the ethnic group speaks Yazgulyam. Used in the home. 60% of children speak Yazgulyam. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Tajiki, which is used as literary language. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | |
| yai | Yagnobi | 2,000 (1975 SIL). | A high mountain valley of the Yagnob River. | Western Yagnobi, Eastern Yagnobi. | Vigorous. Tajiki is used as literary language. Russian also used. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | |
| yak | Yakima | 3,000 (1977 SIL). Ethnic population: 8,000 (1977 SIL). | Yakima Valley, south central Washington. | Yakima, Klikitat. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use English. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1881–1886. | |
| yal | Yalunka | 30,000 in Sierra Leone (2002 SIL). | Northern Province, Balaki Subprefecture around Yifin, Falaba area; Balaki, Kunsi, Bouria, Solia, Foulaya, Jouloubaya villages. | Musaia, Firia, Sulima. | They want literature in Yalunka. Speakers also use Eastern Maninkakan, Krio. | Literacy rate in second language: 2%. | Literacy rate in second language: 2%. | |
| yap | Yapese | 6,592 (1987 Yap census). | Yap Island, 10 islands, Caroline Islands. | Musaia, Firia, Sulima. | National language. Vigorous. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1973. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1973. | |
| yaq | Yaqui | 406 in the USA (1990 census). 2 monolinguals. | Tucson and Phoenix, Arizona area. | Partially intelligible with Mayo. | Speakers also use English or Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Grammar. NT: 1977–2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Grammar. NT: 1977–2003. | |
| yar | Yabarana | 20 to 50 (1977 Migliazza). | North central, Nueva Esparta, area of the Manapiare River basin above the village of San Juan de Manapiare, Amazonas. | Curasicana, Wokiare (Uaiquiare, Guayqueri). Close to Mapoyo and Pémono. | Speakers also use English or Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Grammar. NT: 1977–2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Grammar. NT: 1977–2003. | |
| yas | Nugunu | 35,000 (1987 SIL). | Center Province, Mbam Division, Ombessa and Bokito subdivisions, in and around Ombessa to southwest. | Northern Gunu, Southern Gunu. | Speakers also use English or Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| yat | Yambeta | 3,700 (1982 SIL). | Center Province, Mbam Division, Bafia Subdivision northwest of Bafia. | Nedek, Nigii (Nigi, Begi-Nibum, Kibum). Related to Bati, Mbule, Elip, Leti, Mmaala, Nubaca, Nugunu, Tuki, Yangben. | Speakers also use English or Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| yau | Yuwana | 300 (1970 census). | Central Venezuela. A northern group is in Bolivar Division on the Kaima River, a tributary of the Cuchivero River; an isolated southern group is in Amazonas on the Iguana, a tributary of the Asita River, and on the Parucito, a tributary of the Manapiare River. | There are linguistic similarities to Yanomamö and Piaroa (Salivan). | The southern group is monolingual; the northern group is partially bilingual in Eñepa. | Bible portions: 1999. | Bible portions: 1999. | |
| yav | Yangben | 2,300 (1994 SIL). | Center Province, Mbam Division, Bokito Subdivision, Yangben Canton south of Bokito. | A standardized written form may be possible with Mmaala and Elip, related languages. | Used in religious services. Speakers do not think French will replace Yangben. French is used in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in other than RC churches. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmaala and Elip in early adulthood. | Bible portions: 1999. | Bible portions: 1999. | |
| yaw | Yawalapití | Extinct. | Xingú Park, Mato Grosso. | Related to Waurá and Mehináku. | Used in religious services. Speakers do not think French will replace Yangben. French is used in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in other than RC churches. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmaala and Elip in early adulthood. | Bible portions: 1999. | Bible portions: 1999. | |
| yax | Yauma | 17,075 in Angola (2000 WCD). | Southwest corner, Kwando River area. | Related to Waurá and Mehináku. | Used in religious services. Speakers do not think French will replace Yangben. French is used in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in other than RC churches. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmaala and Elip in early adulthood. | Bible portions: 1978. | Bible portions: 1978. | |
| yba | Yala | 17,075 in Angola (2000 WCD). | Southwest corner, Kwando River area. | Related to Waurá and Mehináku. | Used in religious services. Speakers do not think French will replace Yangben. French is used in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in other than RC churches. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmaala and Elip in early adulthood. | Bible portions: 1978. | Bible portions: 1978. | |
| ybd | Yangbye | 810,300 (1983). | Southwest corner, Kwando River area. | Related to Waurá and Mehináku. | Used in religious services. Speakers do not think French will replace Yangben. French is used in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in other than RC churches. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmaala and Elip in early adulthood. | Bible portions: 1978. | Bible portions: 1978. | |
| ybe | Yugur, West | 2,600 (1999 Zhong Jinwen). Ethnic population: 6,000 (2000 D. Bradley). | Sunan Yugur Autonomous County near Zhangye (Kanchow) in northwest Gansu Province. | Related to Waurá and Mehináku. | Decreasing use. Used in religion, some commerce, oral literature. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Mandarin Chinese. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybh | Yakha | 1,000 in India (2002). | Among British Gurkhas in Sikkim. | Northern Yakha, Southern Yakha, Eastern Yakha. Dialects have minimum diversity. Related to Lumba-Yakkha, Phangduwali, Mugali, Chhintange, Chhulung, Belhariya, Lohorong, Limbu and Athpahariya. | Younger generation is using Nepali (Singh). | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybi | Yamphu | 1,722 (2001 census). Many are monolingual. | Koshi, Mechi zones, directly southwest of the Jaljale Mountains, extreme north of the Northern Lorung area, Sankhuwasawa District, Matsayapokhari Panchayat, upper Arun Valley, eastern hills. | Related to Yamphe but different grammatically and phonologically. | Most are uncomfortable in Nepali (GR). | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybj | Hasha | 3,000 (1999 Blench). | Nasarawa State, Akwanga LGA, 3 villages: Hashasu, Kusu, and Bwora. | Related to Yamphe but different grammatically and phonologically. | Hausa widely known. English spoken by some secondary school students. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybl | Yukuben | 950 in Cameroon (1986 R. Breton). | North West Province, Menchum Division, west of Furu-Awa, near Nigerian border. | Related to Yamphe but different grammatically and phonologically. | Speakers in Cameroon want to have their language written and form a language committee. High bilingualism in Jukun Takum. Cameroon Pidgin is also spoken in the area. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybm | Yaben | 702 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Madang Province. | Related to Usan, Yarawata, Bilakura, Parawen, Ukuriguma. | Speakers in Cameroon want to have their language written and form a language committee. High bilingualism in Jukun Takum. Cameroon Pidgin is also spoken in the area. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybn | Yabaâna | Extinct. Ethnic population: 90 (1986 SIL). | Amazonas, headwaters of the Marauia and Cauaboris, tributaries of the left bank of Rio Negro. | Related to Usan, Yarawata, Bilakura, Parawen, Ukuriguma. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybo | Yabong | 370 (1970 SIL). | Madang Province. | Related to Usan, Yarawata, Bilakura, Parawen, Ukuriguma. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| ybx | Yawiyo | 100 (1977 Voegelin and Voegelin). | Sandaun Province, 10 miles east of Duranmin. 3 villages. | Lexical similarity 7% with Papi. | Most use Saniyo-Hiyewe as second language. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | Literacy rate in second language: 59%. Written Chinese is in use. | |
| yby | Yaweyuha | 2,000 (1991 SIL). | Eastern Highlands Province, Goroka District. | Lexical similarity 7% with Papi. | Most use Saniyo-Hiyewe as second language. | NT: 1982. | NT: 1982. | |
| ycl | Yi, Central | 380,000 (1991 Encyclopedic Dictionary of Chinese Linguistics). | Central Yunnan, including Nanhua, Xiangyun, Yao'an, Jingdong, Chuxiong, Shuangbo, Mouding, Yanxing, Weishan, and Lufeng counties. | Nanhua Lolopho, Shuangbo Lolopho, Yao'an Lolopho. | Vigorous. All ages. Positive language attitude. | Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. | Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. | |
| ycn | Yucuna | 1,800 (2001 SIL). 10 to 20 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 1,800. | Miriti-Parana (tributary Caquetá), Amazonas Region. Some have moved to La Pedrera on the lower Caquetá, Ararcuara, some to Leticia. | In some traditional ceremonies they use a ritual language which is mostly unintelligible even to those who have learned it. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral and written Yucuna is sometimes used in religious services, and oral Yucuna in the traditional religion. Yucuna is used for letter writing. Positive language attitude. 1,500 have varying proficiency in Spanish. Nearly all formal education is in Spanish. Spanish is used with outsiders. Some who have married Tanimuca speakers also speak Tanimuca. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. 500 read Yucuna, 300 can write it. Roman script. NT: 1982. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. 500 read Yucuna, 300 can write it. Roman script. NT: 1982. | |
| ydd | Yiddish, Eastern | 40,000 in Latvia (1991). | Southeastern dialect in Ukraine and Romania, Mideastern dialect in Poland and Hungary, Northeastern dialect in Lithuania and Belarus. Also spoken in Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Costa Rica, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Panama, Poland, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia (Europe), South Africa, Ukraine, Uruguay, USA. | Southeastern Yiddish, Mideastern Yiddish, Northeastern Yiddish. Has many loans from Hebrew and local languages where spoken. Eastern Yiddish originated east of the Oder River through Poland, extending into Belarus, Russia (to Smolensk), Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Rumania, Ukraine, and pre-state British-Mandate Palestine (Jerusalem and Safed). Western Yiddish originated in Germany, Holland, Switzerland, Alsace (France), Czechoslovakia, western Hungary, and is nearing extinction. It branched off medieval High German (mainly Rhenish dialects) and received Modern German influences during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Eastern and Western Yiddish have difficult inherent intelligibility because of differing histories and influences from other languages. There are some Western Yiddish speakers in Israel (M. Herzog 1977). | There may be no Yiddish speakers in Latvia now (1995). Of the 1,811,000 Jewish people listed in the 1979 USSR census, the majority spoke Russian as their first language and virtually all others spoke Russian as their second language. About 50,000 Jews spoke Georgian, Tat, or Tajiki as their first language. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | |
| ydg | Yidgha | 6,145 (2000 WCD). | Upper Lutkuh Valley of Chitral, west of Garam Chishma. | No significant dialect variation within Yidgha. Lexical similarity 56% to 80% with Munji in Afghanistan. | Yidgha is used in many homes and for much in-group communication, and speakers have positive attitudes toward it. Khowar is the main second language used, although with much Yidgha language influence, and proficiency among women is low. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | |
| ydk | Yoidik | 766 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province. | No significant dialect variation within Yidgha. Lexical similarity 56% to 80% with Munji in Afghanistan. | Yidgha is used in many homes and for much in-group communication, and speakers have positive attitudes toward it. Khowar is the main second language used, although with much Yidgha language influence, and proficiency among women is low. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | |
| yds | Yiddish Sign Language | No estimate available. | Madang Province. | No significant dialect variation within Yidgha. Lexical similarity 56% to 80% with Munji in Afghanistan. | Yidgha is used in many homes and for much in-group communication, and speakers have positive attitudes toward it. Khowar is the main second language used, although with much Yidgha language influence, and proficiency among women is low. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | Hebrew script. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1821–1936. | |
| yea | Ravula | 27,413 (1981). Population includes 19,261 Yerava in Karnataka (1981 census), and 8,152 Adiya in Kerala (1981 census). | Karnataka, Coorg (Kodagu) District; Kerala, Wayanad and Kannur districts. | Adiya, Pani Yerava, Panjiri Yerava. 93% to 94% dialect intelligibility between Yerava and Adiya. Relationship of Pani Yerava is uncertain. May be a dialect of Ravula or of Paniya. Lexical similarity 83% to 98% among Yerava and Adiya varieties, 53% to 61% with Standard Malayalam, 35% to 40% with Badaga, 32% to 42% with Colloquial Kannada, 66% to 74% Pani Yerava with Adiya and Yerava. | Vigorous. Positive language attitude. Proficiency in Kannada (in Karnataka) and Malayalam (in Kerala) is low. | Literacy rate in second language: In Karnataka, 6.4%; male 8.6%, female 4%; in Kerala, 15%; male 21%, female 9.3%. High motivation for literature, literacy. Kannada and Malayalam scripts. | Literacy rate in second language: In Karnataka, 6.4%; male 8.6%, female 4%; in Kerala, 15%; male 21%, female 9.3%. High motivation for literature, literacy. Kannada and Malayalam scripts. | |
| yec | Yeniche | No estimate available. | Also spoken in Austria, France, Netherlands, Switzerland. | German with a heavy cryptolectal lexical influsion from Rotwelsch, Yiddish, Romani, and Hebrew. | The first language of some (The Carrier Pidgin 1977). | Literacy rate in second language: In Karnataka, 6.4%; male 8.6%, female 4%; in Kerala, 15%; male 21%, female 9.3%. High motivation for literature, literacy. Kannada and Malayalam scripts. | Literacy rate in second language: In Karnataka, 6.4%; male 8.6%, female 4%; in Kerala, 15%; male 21%, female 9.3%. High motivation for literature, literacy. Kannada and Malayalam scripts. | |
| yee | Yimas | 300 (2000 Wurm). | East Sepik Province, near Chambri, Arafundi River, middle Karawari River. | Related to Karawari. | The first language of some (The Carrier Pidgin 1977). | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. | |
| yei | Yeni | Extinct. | Not far north of Mayo Darle village in Nyalang area. | Related to Karawari. | Apparently all that remains of the language is a song, known by speakers of Sandani (Kwanja). | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. | |
| yej | Yevanic | 35 in Israel. There were a few semispeakers left in 1987 and may be none now. Population total all countries: 50. | There may be a handful of older adult speakers still in Turkey. Also spoken in USA. | Related to Karawari. | Apparently all that remains of the language is a song, known by speakers of Sandani (Kwanja). | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. |
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