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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| tnk | Kwamera | 2,500 (1989 SIL). | Southeast Tanna. | 2 main dialects. | Most Tandia people speak Wandamen. | Grammar. NT: 1890. | Grammar. NT: 1890. | |
| tnl | Lenakel | 6,500 (1988 SIL). | West central Tanna. | Loanatit, Nerauya, Itonga, Ikyoo. Complex dialect chain; up to 10 dialects (Wurm and Hattori). | Most Tandia people speak Wandamen. | Bible portions: 1900–1902. | Bible portions: 1900–1902. | |
| tnm | Tabla | 3,750 (1990 UBS). | Jayapura, Demta, Depapre, 13 villages on north coast east and west of Tanahmerah Bay. | Yokari, Tepera, Yewena-Yongsu. Yokari dialect understood by other dialects at 80% to 95%, others have 95% to 100% intelligibility of each other. Tabla has 30% lexical similarity with Sentani (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Indonesian: 0 1%, 1 1%, 2 8%, 3 85%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Bible portions: 1986. | Bible portions: 1986. | |
| tnn | Tanna, North | 2,000 (1988 SIL). | North Tanna. | East Tanna, West Tanna, Imafin. Two major dialects. There is a dialect chain. Close to Whitesands. | Bislama is used as second language, but many women and some men do not understand it. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1990–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1990–2000. | |
| tno | Toromono | 200 (1983 Varese). Ethnic population: 200 (2000 W. Adelaar). | Northwest, close to the Araona, between the upper Madidi and the River Heath. | East Tanna, West Tanna, Imafin. Two major dialects. There is a dialect chain. Close to Whitesands. | Bislama is used as second language, but many women and some men do not understand it. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1990–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1990–2000. | |
| tnp | Whitesands | 3,500 (1988 SIL). | Tanna Island, east coast. | Weasisi (Wassisi), Lometimeti. | Bislama is used as second language, but many women and some men do not understand it. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1924. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1924. | |
| tnq | Taino | Extinct. | Members of the ethnic group are also now in the USA, in Florida and New Jersey, in Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Cuba. | Weasisi (Wassisi), Lometimeti. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Spanish, or a Spanish-Taino mixed language, not understood by Spanish speakers. They estimate the present language to be 55% Taino and 45% Spanish. They also use Spanish or English. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1924. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1924. | |
| tnr | Budik | 3,375 (2002 NTM). | Southeastern. | Close to Bassari. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Spanish, or a Spanish-Taino mixed language, not understood by Spanish speakers. They estimate the present language to be 55% Taino and 45% Spanish. They also use Spanish or English. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997. | |
| tns | Tenis | 30 (2000 Wurm). | New Ireland Province, Tench Island. | Close to Bassari. | Speakers have high proficiency in Mussau-Emira. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1997. | |
| tnt | Tontemboan | 150,000 (1990). | Northeastern coast of Minahasa Peninsula from Sonder to around Motoling and Tompasobaru. | Langoan, Tompaso (Makelai, Makela'i-Maotow), Sonder (Matanai, Matana'i-Maore'). | Speakers have high proficiency in Mussau-Emira. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | |
| tnu | Tay Khang | 200. | Khammouan Province. Possibly also in Viet Nam. | Langoan, Tompaso (Makelai, Makela'i-Maotow), Sonder (Matanai, Matana'i-Maore'). | Speakers have high proficiency in Mussau-Emira. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | |
| tnv | Tangchangya | 17,695 (1981 census). | Chittagong Hills. | Close to Chakma. | Speakers have high proficiency in Mussau-Emira. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | |
| tnw | Tonsawang | 20,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Northeastern Sulawesi around Tombatu. | Close to Chakma. | Speakers also use Manado Malay. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | |
| tnz | Tonga | Ethnic population: 300 (2000 D. Bradley). | Northwest tip north of Kaki. | Satun. | May be extinct (2000 D. Bradley). | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1933. | |
| tob | Toba | 700 in Paraguay (1991 SIL). | 60 km northwest of Asunción, Franciscan mission. | Southeast Toba, Northern Toba. | May be extinct (2000 D. Bradley). | Dictionary. NT: 1980. | Dictionary. NT: 1980. | |
| toc | Totonac, Coyutla | 48,062 (2000 WCD). Speakers of all Totonac languages: 196,003 (1980 census). | Puebla, foot of the mountains north of the 'Sierra Totonaca' and the Olintla River. | Cerro Grande Totonac. Closest to Highland Totonac with many similarities to Papantla. | May be extinct (2000 D. Bradley). | NT: 1987. | NT: 1987. | |
| tod | Toma | 143,800 (1991 Vanderaa). | Southern, between Macenta and Kissidougou. | Distinct enough from Loma of Liberia to need separate literature. | Official regional language. | Literacy materials taught in school. NT: 1981. | Literacy materials taught in school. NT: 1981. | |
| toe | Tomedes | Extinct. | Southern, between Macenta and Kissidougou. | Distinct enough from Loma of Liberia to need separate literature. | Official regional language. | Literacy materials taught in school. NT: 1981. | Literacy materials taught in school. NT: 1981. | |
| tof | Gizrra | 1,050 (2002 SIL). | Western Province, South Fly Area, north-northeast of the Torres Strait island of Saibai, villages of Kulalae, Ngomtono, Barnap, Kupere, and Waidoro. | Western Gizra, Waidoro. | Official regional language. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% (including semiliterates). Literacy rate in second language: 80% (including semiliterates). | Literacy rate in first language: 15% (including semiliterates). Literacy rate in second language: 80% (including semiliterates). | |
| toj | Tojolabal | 36,000 (1990 census). 7,700 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 36,000. | Chiapas, Margaritas, and Altamirano. | Western Gizra, Waidoro. | All domains. Used in religious services. Spanish is used as second language. | NT: 1972–1994. | NT: 1972–1994. | |
| tol | Tolowa | 4 to 5 (1994 Hinton). Ethnic population: 1,000 (2000 Yamamoto). | Southwestern Oregon. | Western Gizra, Waidoro. | Chasta Costa was a separate tribe in Oregon; now extinct. There are some language revival efforts. | NT: 1972–1994. | NT: 1972–1994. | |
| tom | Tombulu | 60,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Northeastern Sulawesi, around Tanawangko and Tomohon. | Taratara, Tomohon. Closest to Toulour and Tonsea. | Chasta Costa was a separate tribe in Oregon; now extinct. There are some language revival efforts. | Bible portions: 1933. | Bible portions: 1933. | |
| too | Totonac, Xicotepec de Juárez | 3,000 (2000 SIL). 500 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 13,733 (2000 WCD). | Northeastern Puebla, Xicotepec de Juárez, and Veracruz; 30 towns. | Zihuateutla Totonac. 87% intelligibility of Ozumatlán (closest). | Older adults use Totonac more than Spanish. Others use Spanish more than Totonac. Children not learning it. Negative language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 3%, 1 7%, 2 35%, 3 40%, 4 10%, 5 5%. Possibly 200 can also speak some Tepehua, Nahuatl, Otomi. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. NT: 1978. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. NT: 1978. | |
| top | Totonac, Papantla | 80,000 (1982 SIL). | Veracruz. | 40% intelligibility of Highland Totonac (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 5%, 1 10%, 2 50%, 3 15%, 4 10%, 5 10%. | Dictionary. NT: 1979. | Dictionary. NT: 1979. | |
| toq | Toposa | 100,000 (2000 M. Schroeder). Most are monolingual. | Southern Sudan, along both sides of Singaita and Lokalyen rivers. Ritual center at Loyooro River. They migrate as far as Moruangipi, and occasionally farther east into the disputed Ilemi Triangle at the Ethiopian border for seasonal grazing. They have no permanent settlements there. | Eastern Toposa, Western Toposa, Jiye. Eastern Toposa and Jiye are linguistically closer to Turkana; Western Toposa to Karamojong. Inherently intelligible with Nyangatom, Karamojong, and Turkana, but each has strong ethnic attitudes. Separate literature is needed also because of loans from different second languages, and different discourse structures. Limited intelligibility of Teso. | Vigorous. Neighboring groups use it in trade (Didinga, Murle, Boya-Longarim, Tennet). All domains. Positive language attitude. The Toposa are peaceful with the Karamojong, have a mutual nonagression pact with the Nyangatom, are intermittently unfriendly to the Jiye of Sudan, permanently in tension with the Turkana, and to the Murle-Didinga group (Murle, Didinga, Boya-Longarim). A small number speak Southern Sudanese Arabic (Juba Arabic) for trading. A few know some English from school. | Literacy rate in first language: Fewer than 5%. Perhaps 2,000 can read. Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 2002. | Literacy rate in first language: Fewer than 5%. Perhaps 2,000 can read. Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 2002. | |
| tos | Totonac, Highland | 120,000 (1982 SIL). | Zacatlán, Puebla area, and Veracruz. | Eastern Toposa, Western Toposa, Jiye. Eastern Toposa and Jiye are linguistically closer to Turkana; Western Toposa to Karamojong. Inherently intelligible with Nyangatom, Karamojong, and Turkana, but each has strong ethnic attitudes. Separate literature is needed also because of loans from different second languages, and different discourse structures. Limited intelligibility of Teso. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 50%, 2 34%, 3 10%, 4 5%, 5 1%. Some speakers also use Nahuatl. | Dictionary. NT: 1959–2000. | Dictionary. NT: 1959–2000. | |
| tot | Totonac, Patla-Chicontla | 6,000 (1990 census). 20% to 30% are monolingual. | Northeastern Puebla, Patla, Chicontla, Tecpatlán, and 2 other villages. | It is difficult for speakers to understand Northern Totonac materials. | Moderate use. Not all parents pass it on to children. Oral use in local administration, commerce, some in religion. Older adults use it more often, adults use both, children use more Spanish than Totonac. Speakers do not depreciate Totonac. 70% to 80% use Spanish as second language. A few may also speak Nahuatl. Education is all in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | |
| tou | Tho | 68,394 (1999 census). | Northern Nghe An Province, highland areas. Cuoi Cham is in Tan Hop commune, Tan Ky District. | Cuoi Cham (Uy Lo), Mon. | Moderate use. Not all parents pass it on to children. Oral use in local administration, commerce, some in religion. Older adults use it more often, adults use both, children use more Spanish than Totonac. Speakers do not depreciate Totonac. 70% to 80% use Spanish as second language. A few may also speak Nahuatl. Education is all in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | |
| tov | Taromi, Upper | No estimate available. | Upper Tarom of Zanjan Province, Hazarrud, Siavarud. | Various dialects. Close to Kabatei. | Moderate use. Not all parents pass it on to children. Oral use in local administration, commerce, some in religion. Older adults use it more often, adults use both, children use more Spanish than Totonac. Speakers do not depreciate Totonac. 70% to 80% use Spanish as second language. A few may also speak Nahuatl. Education is all in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | Literacy rate in first language: 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. NT: 1999. | |
| tow | Jemez | 1,301 (1990 census). 6 monolinguals (1990). Ethnic population: 1,488 (1980 census). | North central New Mexico. | Various dialects. Close to Kabatei. | Vigorous. 95% of the population under 18 years of age are speakers (1980). | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| toy | Topoiyo | 2,000 (1988 T. Laskowske). | South Sulawesi, Budong-Budong Subdistrict in Mamuju District, inland along Budong-Budong River. | Lexical similarity 66% with Sarudu and Da'a, 56% with Ledo, 54% with the Parigi dialect of Kaili. | Vigorous. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| tpc | Tlapanec, Azoyú | 682. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 17,000 in the Municipio. | East and a little south of Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Azoyú, Maxnadi, Toxnene, Zapotitlán del Puente, San Isidro del Puente, El Carrizo. | 50% intelligible of Malinaltepec. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| tpe | Tippera | 100,000 (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). | Chittagong Hills. | 36 dialects. | Many men can speak Bengali. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| tpg | Kula | 5,000 (1997 Grimes, Therik, Grimes, Jacob). | Eastern quarter of Alor Island, between Kamang and Sawila. Naumang is an old village. Other villages are the result of recent migrations from older locations. Most are in higher elevations, but the villagers of Maukuru, Takala, Koilela, Peisaka, and Kiralela on the north coast also speak Kula. | Iramang, Kula, Kulatela, Watena, Larena, Kula Watena, Sumang, Arumaka. Structurally similar to Sawila. Intelligibility of Sawila is marginal. | Many men can speak Bengali. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| tpi | Tok Pisin | 121,000 (2003 SIL). 50,000 monolinguals. | Mainly in the northern half of the country, and now well established in Port Moresby, and into other regions. | There are dialect differences between lowlands, highlands, and the islands. The highlands lexicon has more English influence (J. Holm). | Official language. The first language of some people in mixed urban areas. The main means of communication between speakers of different languages. The most frequently used language in Parliament and commerce. Some second-language users speak a 'broken' Pidgin. Where it is the first language, it is passed on to children by parents. 4,000,000 second-language speakers. All domains. Used in schools, churches, government, commerce. All ages. Positive language attitude. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | |
| tpj | Tapieté | 70 in Bolivia (2000 W. Adelaar). Ethnic population: 74 in Bolivia (2000 W. Adelaar). | Southeast, towns of Samayhuate and Cutaiqui. | Linguistically between Chiriguano and Paraguayan Guaraní. | Speakers have reservations about use of their language outside their culture area. Reported to use Paraguayan Guaraní. Some also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | |
| tpk | Tupinikin | Extinct. Ethnic population: 820 (1995 AMTB). | Espirito Santo, Bahia. | Linguistically between Chiriguano and Paraguayan Guaraní. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | Literacy rate in second language: 40% to 45%. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1989. | |
| tpl | Tlapanec, Tlacoapa | 3,461 (2000 WCD). | East and a little south of Chilpancingo, Guerrero. | Malinaltepec speakers have 50% intelligibility of Tlacoapa. | Speakers recognize Tlacoapa as different from Malinaltepec. Tlacoapa Tlapanec speakers can understand Malinaltepec because of learning. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| tpn | Tupinambá | Extinct. | Formerly along coast from Rio de Janeiro north to the Amazon River. | Malinaltepec speakers have 50% intelligibility of Tlacoapa. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| tpo | Tai Pao | 3,300 (1995 census). | Bolikhamxay Province, Viangthong, Khamkeut, Pakkading districts. | Malinaltepec speakers have 50% intelligibility of Tlacoapa. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| tpp | Tepehua, Pisaflores | 4,000 (1990 census). | Veracruz, towns of Pisaflores, Ixhuatlán de Madero, and one other town. Not in Puebla. | 59% intelligibility of Huehuetla (closest), 40% or less of Tlachichilco. | Speakers have low proficiency in Spanish. | Bible portions: 1998. | Bible portions: 1998. | |
| tpq | Tukpa | 723 (1998). | Himachal Pradesh, Kinnaur District, Nesang, Charang, and Kunnu villages. | Related to Bhoti Kinnauri, Chitkuli Kinnauri, Kanashi. | Speakers have low proficiency in Spanish. | Bible portions: 1998. | Bible portions: 1998. | |
| tpr | Tuparí | 300 (2000). | Rondônia, Branco River, tributary of the Guaporé, Pororoca Post. | Related to Bhoti Kinnauri, Chitkuli Kinnauri, Kanashi. | Speakers have low proficiency in Spanish. | Bible portions: 1998. | Bible portions: 1998. | |
| tpt | Tepehua, Tlachichilco | 3,000 (1990 SIL). | Tlachichilco, Veracruz. | 37% intelligibility of Pisa Flores (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 5%, 1 20%, 2 50%, 3 20%, 4 4%, 5 1%. Some speakers also use Otomi or Nahuatl. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tpu | Tampuan | 25,000 (1998). | Northeast border area, south of Brao, west of Jarai, Central Ratanakiri Province. | Related to Bahnar, Lamam, Alak 1, but geographically separated. | Central Khmer is known by some individuals, Lao by some. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tpw | Tupí | Extinct. | Formerly along coast around what is now São Paulo. | Related to Bahnar, Lamam, Alak 1, but geographically separated. | Central Khmer is known by some individuals, Lao by some. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tpx | Tlapanec, Acatepec | 33,000 (1994 SIL). 10,000 monolinguals. | Acatepec, Guerrero, Zapotitlán Tablas Municipio: Huitzapula, Ayotoxtla, Excalerilla, Huiztlatzala; Acatepec Municipio: Acatepec, Apetzuca, Tenamazapa, Barranca Pobre, Mezcalapa, Metlapilapa, Tres Cruces, El Salto, Zochitepec, Caxitepec; Platanillo municipio: Nanzintla, Teocuitlapa. | Acatepec, Zapotitlán Tablas, Platanillo. 83% intelligibility of Malinaltepec, 79% of Tlacoapa. | Many bilingual school teachers from Malinaltepec. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tpy | Trumaí | 78 (1995). | Xingú Park, source of Xingú River, villages along banks, Mato Grosso. | Ruhlen and others classify it as Equatorial. | Many bilingual school teachers from Malinaltepec. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tqb | Tembé | 150 to 200 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 700 (2000 C. Jensen). | Maranhão, Gurupi, and Guamá rivers. None in Guamá speak Tembé, only Portuguese. In Gurupi about 100 of 170 speak Tembé. | The speech of most or all groups of this name is intelligible with Guajajára. | Many bilingual school teachers from Malinaltepec. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tqm | Turumsa | 5 (2002 SIL). | Western Province, Middle Fly District, Makapa village. | Lexical similarity 19% with Turumsa, 15% with Doso. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Dibiyaso, Doso, Kamula, Gogodala, or Hiri Motu. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tqn | Tenino | 200 (1977 SIL). Ethnic population: 1,000 (1977 SIL). | Warm Springs Reservation, Oregon. | Lexical similarity 19% with Turumsa, 15% with Doso. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers are shifting to English. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. NT: 2003. | |
| tqo | Toaripi | 23,000 (1977 SIL). | Gulf Province, Cape Possession to Cape Cupola. Kerema is a main town. | Kaipi (Melaripi), Toaripi (Moripi-Iokea, Moveave), Sepoe. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers are shifting to English. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tqq | Tunni | 29,726 (2000 WCD). | Lower Shabeelle and Middle Jubba regions, Dhiinsoor, Baraawe, and Jilib districts. | Distinct from Somali or Jiiddu, usually grouped under the Digil dialects or languages. Different sentence structure and phonology from Somali. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers are shifting to English. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tqr | Torona | Extinct. | Northern Sudan, Talodi, Moro Hills. | Distinct from Somali or Jiiddu, usually grouped under the Digil dialects or languages. Different sentence structure and phonology from Somali. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Tira. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tqt | Totonac, Ozumatlán | 4,000 (1990 census). | Puebla, Ozumatlán, Tepetzintla, Tlapehuala, San Agustín. | 79% intelligibility of Highland Totonac, 75% of Northern Totonac, 67% of Zihuateutla, Puebla, 43% of Papantla. | Speakers are not bilingual in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tqu | Touo | 1,874 (1999 census). | South Rendova Island, Western Province. | 79% intelligibility of Highland Totonac, 75% of Northern Totonac, 67% of Zihuateutla, Puebla, 43% of Papantla. | All ages. High level of bilingualism in Pijin and Marovo. Bilingualism of speakers in Roviana is decreasing. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tqw | Tonkawa | Extinct. | North central Oklahoma. | 79% intelligibility of Highland Totonac, 75% of Northern Totonac, 67% of Zihuateutla, Puebla, 43% of Papantla. | Members of the ethnic group now speak English. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| tra | Tirahi | 100. Ethnic population: Possibly 5,000. | Southeast of Jalalabad, and west of the Khyber Pass; village of Nangarhar. Not in Pakistan. | Most closely related to Kohistani languages of Pakistan. | Most members of the ethnic group now speak Pashtu. Speakers are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Bible: 1983. | |
| trc | Triqui, Copala | 15,000 (1990 census). | Oaxaca, San Juan Copala, San Quintín valley, Baja California. | 56% intelligibility of Chicahuaxtla. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 30%, 2 15%, 3 10%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Grammar. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Grammar. NT: 1988. | |
| trd | Turi | 6,054 (2000 WCD). Ethnic population: 150,000 (1981 census). | Jharkhand, Ranchi, Gumla, Lohardaga districts, Chotanagpur area; Chhattisgarh, Raigarh District; Orissa, Sambalpur and Sundargarh districts; West Bengal, Birbhum, Nadia, Murshidabad, Bankura districts. | 56% intelligibility of Chicahuaxtla. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 30%, 2 15%, 3 10%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Grammar. NT: 1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Grammar. NT: 1988. | |
| tre | Tarangan, East | 3,784 (1987 Maluku Dalam Angka). | East coast of Tarangan Island, south Aru Islands, and villages in Maikor Strait (Sungai Maikor), 13 villages. South Maluku. | Lexical similarity 71% with West Tarangan. | Vigorous. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| trf | Trinidadian Creole English | 9,600 (2004). | Trinidad. | Lexical similarity 71% with West Tarangan. | Vigorous. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| trg | Lishán Didán | 4,228 in Israel (2001 WCD). Population total all countries: 4,378. | Jerusalem and Tel-Aviv area mainly. Originally Iranian Azerbaijan and southeast Turkey. Also spoken in Azerbaijan, Georgia. | Northern Cluster Lishán Didán, Southern Cluster Lishán Didán. 60% to 70% intelligibility of Hulaulá and Lishanid Noshan, but not of other Aramaic languages. Northern cluster subdialects are Urmi, Salmas, Anatolia; southern cluster dialects are Naghada, Ushno, Mahabad. The Urmi subdialect of Lishán Didán is different from the Urmi subdialect of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. | Speakers are older adults. Hebrew is the second language. Some are multilingual. Many are married to nonspeakers. | Hebrew script. OT: 1950s. | Hebrew script. OT: 1950s. | |
| trh | Turaka | 25 (2000 Wurm). | Milne Bay Province, 5 miles southwest of Radarada and Ruaba. | Northern Cluster Lishán Didán, Southern Cluster Lishán Didán. 60% to 70% intelligibility of Hulaulá and Lishanid Noshan, but not of other Aramaic languages. Northern cluster subdialects are Urmi, Salmas, Anatolia; southern cluster dialects are Naghada, Ushno, Mahabad. The Urmi subdialect of Lishán Didán is different from the Urmi subdialect of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. | Speakers are older adults. Hebrew is the second language. Some are multilingual. Many are married to nonspeakers. | People want their own literacy program. | People want their own literacy program. | |
| tri | Trió | 329 in Brazil (1995). | Pará, Rio Mapari. | Pianocotó. | All domains. Speakers have an attitude of pride toward Trió, but do not consider it to be appropriate for a subject or instruction in school. The purer Trió is considered to be spoken by the older men and storytellers, and not by most of the younger men, those who have lived in town, or children of mixed marriages (E. B. Carlin 1998). | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | |
| trj | Toram | 8,456 (2000). | Central, Salamat Prefecture, Abou Deïa Subprefecture, southeast of Abou Deïa, south of the Birgit, in and west of Ter. | Pianocotó. | Speakers seem to be shifting to Chadian Arabic. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | |
| trl | Traveller Scottish | 4,000 in Scotland. | Also spoken in Australia, USA. | Pianocotó. | Speakers seem to be shifting to Chadian Arabic. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1979. | |
| trm | Tregami | 1,000 (1994). | Nuristan, Tregam Valley, villages of Katar and Gambir. | Lexical similarity 76% to 80% with Waigali. | Speakers seem to be shifting to Chadian Arabic. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. | |
| trn | Trinitario | 5,500 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 20,805 with Ignaciano (2000 W. Adelaar). | South central Beni. | Loreto (Loretano), Javierano. | Speakers seem to be shifting to Chadian Arabic. | NT: 1979. | NT: 1979. | |
| tro | Naga, Tarao | 870 (2000). | Manipur: Chandel District, 3 villages near Palel (Heikakpokpi, Leishokching, Khuringmul), Laiminei village; Ukhrul District, Sinakeithei village. | Closest to Chothe Naga, 70% intelligibility. Lexical similarity less than 60% with any neighboring languages; 43% to 46% with Chothe. | All ages. Speakers have low proficiency in Meitei or English. | Literacy rate in second language: 75% Meitei, English. Literacy program in progress. Older people can read Meitei in Bengali script. Young people prefer Roman script. Most villages have primary and junior schools; attendance is irregular. | Literacy rate in second language: 75% Meitei, English. Literacy program in progress. Older people can read Meitei in Bengali script. Young people prefer Roman script. Most villages have primary and junior schools; attendance is irregular. | |
| trp | Kok Borok | 100,000 in Bangladesh (2001). | Assam; eastern Tripura. Also spoken in Bangladesh. | Jamatia, Noatia, Riang (Tipra), Halam, Debbarma. | All ages. Speakers have low proficiency in Meitei or English. | Literacy rate in second language: 18% (1971). Bengali and Roman scripts. Newspapers. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 18% (1971). Bengali and Roman scripts. Newspapers. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1998. | |
| trq | Triqui, San Martín Itunyoso | 2,000 (1983). | Oaxaca. | Lexical similarity 87% with Laguna, Chicahuaxtla; 84% with Sabana, San Miguel. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 40%, 2 4%, 3 3%, 4 2%, 5 1%. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| trr | Taushiro | 1 (2002 SIL). Ethnic population: 20. | Off the Tigre River, Aucayacu River, tributary of the Ahuaruna River. | Possibly Zaparoan. Ruhlen says it is related to Candoshi. | Official language. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| trs | Triqui, Chicahuaxtla | 6,000 (1982). | Tlaxiaco area, Oaxaca. | Laguna. 74% intelligibility of Copala. Lexical similarity 100% with Laguna, 87% with Itunyoso, 78% with Sabana. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 15%, 1 40%, 2 20%, 3 14%, 4 10%, 5 1%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1968. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1968. | |
| trt | Tunggare | 500 (1993 Doriot). | North central, inland from Waropen group, west of Mamberamo River, east Geelvink Bay near Nabire. | Most closely related to Bauzi. Lexical similarity 70% with Bauzi, 75% with Burate, 65% with Demisa, 70% with Tefaro, 69% with Woria. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 15%, 1 40%, 2 20%, 3 14%, 4 10%, 5 1%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1968. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1968. | |
| tru | Turoyo | 7,000 in Syria (1994). Ethnic population: 20,000 (1994). | Southeastern Turkey, Mardin Province (originally). Also spoken in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Iraq, Lebanon, Netherlands, Sweden, Syria, USA. | Midyat, Midin, Kfarze, `Iwardo, Anhil, Raite. Related to Northeastern Aramaic varieties. Turoyo subdialects exhibit a cleavage between Town Turoyo (Midyat Turoyo), Village Turoyo, and Mixed (Village-Town) Turoyo. The latter is spoken mainly by the younger generation outside Tur `Abdin, Turkey, the language’s original location, and is gaining ground throughout the Jacobite diaspora in other countries. | Used in the home. Western Syriac used in church, Arabic in schools and trade. | Syriac script. Bible portions: 1983. | Syriac script. Bible portions: 1983. | |
| trv | Taroko | 4,750 (2002 Council of Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan, ROC). Ethnic population: 4,750. | Central, eastern, and coastal; northern mountains in the Puli area and along the coast south of Hualien, south of the Atayal. | Teruku (Truku), Te'uda (Tuuda), Tekedaya (Tkdaya, Paran). Dialects differ mainly in phonology and lexicon, and some in grammar. | Chinese is used in schools. Older people also speak Japanese. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | |
| trw | Torwali | 60,000 (1987). | Swat Kohistan, on both sides of Swat River from just beyond Madyan north to Asrit (between Mankjal and Peshmal), and in Chail Valley east of Madyan, Bahrain and Chail are centers. | Bahrain, Chail. Lexical similarity 44% with Kalkoti and Kalami, 89% between Behrain and Chail. | Men have routine proficiency in Pashto, more limited in Urdu. Women are limited in use of Pashto, and know almost no Urdu. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | |
| trx | Tringgus | 350 in Malaysia (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Southwest of Kuching, south of the Jagoi, on the Kalimantan border. Also spoken in Indonesia. | Tringgus, Mbaan (Sembaan, Bimbaan). Each dialect has a few villages. Closer to Biatah than to Jagoi. Gumbang may be a Tringgus dialect rather than a Jagoi dialect. | Men have routine proficiency in Pashto, more limited in Urdu. Women are limited in use of Pashto, and know almost no Urdu. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | |
| try | Turung | Extinct. | Assam, Golaghat District, Titabar; Karbi Anglong. | Tringgus, Mbaan (Sembaan, Bimbaan). Each dialect has a few villages. Closer to Biatah than to Jagoi. Gumbang may be a Tringgus dialect rather than a Jagoi dialect. | Men have routine proficiency in Pashto, more limited in Urdu. Women are limited in use of Pashto, and know almost no Urdu. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | |
| trz | Torá | 40 (1990). Ethnic population: 120 (1990 YWAM). | Amazonas, on the lower Rio Marmelos, tributary of the Rio Madeira. | Tringgus, Mbaan (Sembaan, Bimbaan). Each dialect has a few villages. Closer to Biatah than to Jagoi. Gumbang may be a Tringgus dialect rather than a Jagoi dialect. | Men have routine proficiency in Pashto, more limited in Urdu. Women are limited in use of Pashto, and know almost no Urdu. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1963–1988. | |
| tsb | Tsamai | 8,621 (1998 census). 5,298 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 9,702 (1998 census). | Omo Region, lowlands west of Lake Chamo. | The Tsamai say Gawwada is difficult to understand. Possibly related to Birale. The most aberrant Dullay variety. Lexical similarity 56% to 73% with Gawwada dialects, 61% with Bussa, 31% with Komso. | 1,200 second-language speakers. They use Komso for trade. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 2.8%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 2.8%. | |
| tsd | Tsakonian | 1,200 (1981 J. Werner). 300 shepherds. | Towns of Kastanitsa, Sitena, Prastos, Leonidi, Pramatefti, Sapounakeika, Tyros, Melana, possibly Korakovunio; eastern coast of Peloponnesos. Isolated in summer in the mountains west of Leonidi in the eastern Peloponnesus; in winter they descend to Leonidi and neighboring towns. | Northern Tsakonian (Kastanista-Sitena), Southern Tsakonian (Leonidio-Prastos), Propontis Tsakonian (Vatka-Havoutsi). Derived from the Doric dialect spoken in Lakonia by ancient Spartans. Northern and Southern are reported to be intelligible to each other's speakers, but Propontis was more distinct, and closer to Standard Greek. Not inherently intelligible with modern Greek (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Lexical similarity 70% or less with Standard Greek. | There were monolingual speakers in 1927. Few speakers of Northern Tsakonian. Speakers use Southern Tsakonian. Propontis Tsakonian has become extinct since 1970. All use Greek as second language. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| tse | Tunisian Sign Language | No estimate available. | Towns of Kastanitsa, Sitena, Prastos, Leonidi, Pramatefti, Sapounakeika, Tyros, Melana, possibly Korakovunio; eastern coast of Peloponnesos. Isolated in summer in the mountains west of Leonidi in the eastern Peloponnesus; in winter they descend to Leonidi and neighboring towns. | Northern Tsakonian (Kastanista-Sitena), Southern Tsakonian (Leonidio-Prastos), Propontis Tsakonian (Vatka-Havoutsi). Derived from the Doric dialect spoken in Lakonia by ancient Spartans. Northern and Southern are reported to be intelligible to each other's speakers, but Propontis was more distinct, and closer to Standard Greek. Not inherently intelligible with modern Greek (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977). Lexical similarity 70% or less with Standard Greek. | Used in a school for the deaf. Used by USA Peace Corps. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| tsf | Tamang, Southwestern | 109,051 (1991 census). | Narayani Zone, Western Makwanpur and Chitawan districts, and south and southwest of those districts. It may extend to the western and northwestern parts of Kathmandu District in Bagmati Zone. Migrations to Terai. | Preliminary results: 86% intelligibility by Western Trisuli Tamang, 87% by Central-Eastern Tamang, 54% to 67% by Outer-Eastern Tamang. Relationship within Tamang still needs evaluation. Southwestern Tamang has 80% lexical similarity with Western Trisuli Tamang, 76% to 78% with Western Rasuwa dialect, 78% with Northwestern Tamang, 70% to 73% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang, 77% to 93% with Eastern Tamang. | Used in a school for the deaf. Used by USA Peace Corps. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 75%. | |
| tsg | Tausug | 110,000 in Malaysia (1982 SIL). | Sempurna, Sandakan, Tawau, Lahad Datu, Labuk-Sugut, Kudat districts. | Preliminary results: 86% intelligibility by Western Trisuli Tamang, 87% by Central-Eastern Tamang, 54% to 67% by Outer-Eastern Tamang. Relationship within Tamang still needs evaluation. Southwestern Tamang has 80% lexical similarity with Western Trisuli Tamang, 76% to 78% with Western Rasuwa dialect, 78% with Northwestern Tamang, 70% to 73% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang, 77% to 93% with Eastern Tamang. | Language of wider communication. Vigorous. Mapun, Central Sama, Balangingi Sama, Pangutaran Sama, Southern Sama, and Yakan speakers speak it as second language. All domains, local administration, commerce, religion, letters. All ages. Older people feel that young people do not know the 'deep' Tausug. Positive language attitude. | Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. | Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. | |
| tsh | Tsuvan | 2,300 (2000 SIL). | Far North Province, Mayo-Tsanaga Division, southeastern Bourrah Subdivision, northeast of Dourbeye in the village of Tchevi consisting of 5 quarters found in an area of 10 km in diameter; some in North Province, Mayo-Louti Division. | Preliminary results: 86% intelligibility by Western Trisuli Tamang, 87% by Central-Eastern Tamang, 54% to 67% by Outer-Eastern Tamang. Relationship within Tamang still needs evaluation. Southwestern Tamang has 80% lexical similarity with Western Trisuli Tamang, 76% to 78% with Western Rasuwa dialect, 78% with Northwestern Tamang, 70% to 73% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang, 77% to 93% with Eastern Tamang. | Diglossia with Fulfulde. Schooling is in French. | Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. | Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. | |
| tsi | Tsimshian | 50 in the USA (2002). Ethnic population: 1,300 in USA (1995 M. Krauss). | Tip of Alaska panhandle, (New) Metlakatla on Annette Island, some in Ketchikan. | Southern Tsimshian (Sguxs, Old Klemtu), Coast Tsimshian (Sm'algyax). | Speakers are shifting to English. Speakers are older adults. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1885–1898. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1885–1898. | |
| tsj | Tshangla | 5,000 in China (1997). | Western Arunachal Pradesh, Kameng District, in and around Dirang, Bishing, and several other villages; West Siang District, former Padma-bkod Region, Tuting, Mechuka circles, Mechuka, Opu, Bona, Galling, Korfu, Dorgling Halung, Tuting villages. | Standard variety in Tashigang. Lexical similarity 40% to 50% with Bumthangkha, 48% with Dzongkha, 41% with Adap. | Adi Bokar, Adi Ramo, Hindi and English spoken by some (West Siang). | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| tsk | Tseku | 4,786 in Nepal (2000). | Mechi Zone, Panchthar District. | Standard variety in Tashigang. Lexical similarity 40% to 50% with Bumthangkha, 48% with Dzongkha, 41% with Adap. | Adi Bokar, Adi Ramo, Hindi and English spoken by some (West Siang). | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| tsl | Ts'ün-Lao | 10,000 (1993 Dang Nghiem Van). | Lai Chau Province, northwestern Viet Nam. | Standard variety in Tashigang. Lexical similarity 40% to 50% with Bumthangkha, 48% with Dzongkha, 41% with Adap. | Adi Bokar, Adi Ramo, Hindi and English spoken by some (West Siang). | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| tsm | Turkish Sign Language | No estimate available. | Lai Chau Province, northwestern Viet Nam. | Standard variety in Tashigang. Lexical similarity 40% to 50% with Bumthangkha, 48% with Dzongkha, 41% with Adap. | Adi Bokar, Adi Ramo, Hindi and English spoken by some (West Siang). | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Uchen script; Tibetan script in India. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| tsp | Toussian, Northern | 19,500 (1995 SIL). Population includes 1,000 in Wenteene dialect, 18,500 in the other dialects. | Comoé Province, north, east, and south of Oradara. | Ter. Tru, Kebeenton, Wenteene. Dialects in the northern region are inherently intelligible to their speakers, but they have 45% inherent intelligibility of Southern Toussian. | Used in the home. All ages. Jula is used as second language with high competence among all subgroups to outsiders, for government, and trade. French is used some for government contacts. | Literacy rate in second language: 5% in French, 3% in Jula. | Literacy rate in second language: 5% in French, 3% in Jula. | |
| tsq | Thai Sign Language | 51,000 profoundly, prelingually deaf people in Thailand (1997 Charles B. Reilly). 20% of deaf children go to school, where they get the opportunity to learn this language. | Major regional centers and Bangkok. | The first deaf school was established in 1951, with influence from Gallaudet University in the USA. It uses a combination of indigenous signs and American Sign Language. Before 1950 Chiangmai and Bangkok had their own separate but related sign languages, and probably other 'urban' areas had their own sign languages, related to present sign languages in parts of Laos and Viet Nam, including Haiphong. The signs used at the deaf school at Tak are reported to be very different. | Total communication used in school: speaking and signing. Reported to be high mobility among most deaf people today. The sign language used in the classroom and that by deaf adults outside is different. All deaf born since 1951, and some older ones. | Literacy rate in second language: Fewer than 10%. Educated deaf people have some Thai literacy skills, but limited. Taught in primary schools. TV. Dictionary. | Literacy rate in second language: Fewer than 10%. Educated deaf people have some Thai literacy skills, but limited. Taught in primary schools. TV. Dictionary. | |
| tss | Taiwan Sign Language | 82,558 (2001). | Major regional centers and Bangkok. | Taipei, Tainan, Kaohsiung. 2 major dialects. The sources from which the sign language developed were indigenous sign systems before 1895, Japanese occupation and education 1895–1946, Mainland Chinese Sign Language brought by refugees in 1949 and some from Hongkong since. Lexical similarity 50% with Japanese Sign Language. | Total communication used in school: speaking and signing. Reported to be high mobility among most deaf people today. The sign language used in the classroom and that by deaf adults outside is different. All deaf born since 1951, and some older ones. | Literacy rate in second language: Fewer than 10%. Educated deaf people have some Thai literacy skills, but limited. Taught in primary schools. TV. Dictionary. | Literacy rate in second language: Fewer than 10%. Educated deaf people have some Thai literacy skills, but limited. Taught in primary schools. TV. Dictionary. | |
| tsu | Tsou | 2,127 (2002 Council of Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan, ROC). Ethnic population: 2,127. | West central mountains southeast of Chiayi around Alishan (Mt. Ali). | Duhtu, Luhtu, Tapangu, Tfuea, Iimutsu. | Iimutsu is extinct (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The people speak Tsou in daily life. Young people speak Mandarin. Speakers also use Mandarin. | Roman script. Grammar. | Roman script. Grammar. | |
| tsw | Tsishingini | 100,000 (2004 SIL). | Niger State, Magama and Mariga LGAs, Salka area. | Ibeto. A member of the Kambari language cluster, which includes Cishingini and Tsikimba. | All ages. Speakers also use Hausa, English, or other Kambari languages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 20% Hausa. Grammar. Bible portions: 1933–2001. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 20% Hausa. Grammar. Bible portions: 1933–2001. | |
| tsx | Mubami | 1,730 (2002 SIL). | Western Province, northeastern corner, middle and lower Wawoi River and Guavi River, villages of Parieme, Sogae (Sipsi), Diwami, Kubeai, Waliho (Warehou), Paueme, Ugu (Kala) on Aramia River. | Lexical similarity 42% with Minanibai (closest). | Vigorous. Used in the home and cultural events, social events along with other languages. Vernacular instruction first two years. All ages. Positive language attitude. Some speakers also use English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, Hoyahoya, Bamu, or Gogodala. Women tend to control fewer languages than men. Many women are monolingual. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Taught in primary schools. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Taught in primary schools. | |
| tsz | Purepecha | 120,000 (1990 census). | Michoacán. | Several varieties do not have functional intelligibility of each other. | Vigorous. Used in the home and cultural events, social events along with other languages. Vernacular instruction first two years. All ages. Positive language attitude. Some speakers also use English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, Hoyahoya, Bamu, or Gogodala. Women tend to control fewer languages than men. Many women are monolingual. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1969. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1969. | |
| tta | Tutelo | Extinct. | Formerly in the lower Mississippi Valley. | Several varieties do not have functional intelligibility of each other. | Vigorous. Used in the home and cultural events, social events along with other languages. Vernacular instruction first two years. All ages. Positive language attitude. Some speakers also use English, Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, Hoyahoya, Bamu, or Gogodala. Women tend to control fewer languages than men. Many women are monolingual. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1969. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1969. |
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