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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| osu | One, Southern | 200 (2000 Crowther). Ethnic population: 200. | Sandaun Province, Lumi District, West Waipei Division, between East Bewani and West Torricelli ranges, Romei, Parara, Wolwale, Koiniri, Karantu villages. | Close to Kabore One, Inebu One, Northern One, Kwamtim One, Molmo One. | All domains except church. All ages. Speakers have routine bilingual proficiency in Tok Pisin, but inadequate for abstract and complex concepts. | Literacy is in English. | Literacy is in English. | |
| otd | Dohoi | 25,000 (2003). | Extensive area south of the Schwaner Range on the upper reaches of south Borneo rivers. The Ulu Ai' are on the Mandai River with 7 villages. | Ot Balawan, Ot Banu'u, Ot Murung 1 (Murung 1, Punan Ratah), Ot Olang, Ot Tuhup, Sarawai (Melawi), Dohoi, Ulu Ai' (Da'an), Sebaung, Kadorih. Lexical similarity 70% with Siang, 65% with Kohin, 60% with Katingan, 50% with Ngaju. | All domains except church. All ages. Speakers have routine bilingual proficiency in Tok Pisin, but inadequate for abstract and complex concepts. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| ote | Otomi, Mezquital | 100,000 in Mexico (1990 census). Population includes 100 in North Carolina, USA. | Mezquital Valley, Hidalgo. Some in Florida, USA. Also spoken in USA. | Ot Balawan, Ot Banu'u, Ot Murung 1 (Murung 1, Punan Ratah), Ot Olang, Ot Tuhup, Sarawai (Melawi), Dohoi, Ulu Ai' (Da'an), Sebaung, Kadorih. Lexical similarity 70% with Siang, 65% with Kohin, 60% with Katingan, 50% with Ngaju. | All domains except church. All ages. Speakers have routine bilingual proficiency in Tok Pisin, but inadequate for abstract and complex concepts. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | |
| oti | Oti | Extinct. | São Paulo. | Ot Balawan, Ot Banu'u, Ot Murung 1 (Murung 1, Punan Ratah), Ot Olang, Ot Tuhup, Sarawai (Melawi), Dohoi, Ulu Ai' (Da'an), Sebaung, Kadorih. Lexical similarity 70% with Siang, 65% with Kohin, 60% with Katingan, 50% with Ngaju. | All domains except church. All ages. Speakers have routine bilingual proficiency in Tok Pisin, but inadequate for abstract and complex concepts. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | |
| otl | Otomi, Tilapa | 400 (1990 census). | Santiago Tilapa town between Mexico, D. F. and Toluca, State of Mexico. | Ot Balawan, Ot Banu'u, Ot Murung 1 (Murung 1, Punan Ratah), Ot Olang, Ot Tuhup, Sarawai (Melawi), Dohoi, Ulu Ai' (Da'an), Sebaung, Kadorih. Lexical similarity 70% with Siang, 65% with Kohin, 60% with Katingan, 50% with Ngaju. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1970. | |
| otm | Otomi, Eastern Highland | 20,000 (1990 census). 4,700 monolinguals. | Vicinity of Huehuetla and San Bartolo, Hidalgo; Tlachichilco and Ixhuatlán, Veracruz. | 81% intelligibility of Tenango (closest), 50% of Mezquital. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 16%, 1 59%, 2 20%, 3 3%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1974–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Dictionary. NT: 1974–2000. | |
| otn | Otomi, Tenango | 10,000 (1990 census). | San Nicolás, Hidalgo, and Puebla. | 53% intelligibility of Eastern Highland Otomi (closest). | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 16%, 1 59%, 2 20%, 3 3%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| otq | Otomi, Querétaro | 33,000 (1990 census). | Amealco Municipio: towns of San Ildefonso, Santiago Mexquititlán; Acambay Municipio; Tolimán Municipio. | 78% intelligibility of Mezquital (closest), lower in outlying areas. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 16%, 1 59%, 2 20%, 3 3%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | NT: 2003. | NT: 2003. | |
| otr | Otoro | 10,000 (2001). | Northern Sudan, Kordofan Province, Nuba Mountains Region, Otoro Hills south of Heiban and west of the Heiban-Talodi road. | Dugujur, Dukwara, Dorobe, Dogoridi. | Speakers also use Sudanese Arabic. | NT: 1966. | NT: 1966. | |
| ots | Otomi, Estado de México | 10,000 (1990 census). 400 monolinguals. | State of Mexico. | San Felipe Santiago Otomí. 73% intelligibility of Mezquital Otomi (closest), lower in outlying areas. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: Women: 0 0%, 1 20%, 2 40%, 3 40%, 4 0%, 5 0%; Men: 0 0%, 1 20%, 2 30%, 3 50%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| ott | Otomi, Temoaya | 37,000 (1990 census). 850 monolinguals. | State of Mexico Temoyaya Municipio and 16 barrios, including San Pedro Arriba, San Pedro Abajo, Enthavi, Solalpan, and Jiquipilco el Viejo. | San Felipe Santiago Otomí. 73% intelligibility of Mezquital Otomi (closest), lower in outlying areas. | It is mainly those over 40 years old who have difficulty with Spanish (1999). Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: Women: 0 0%, 1 0%, 2 20%, 3 40%, 4 30%, 5 10%; Men: 0 0%, 1 0%, 2 5%, 3 15%, 4 40%, 5 40%. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| otu | Otuke | Extinct. | Mato Grosso lowlands into eastern Bolivia. | Related dialects or languages: Covareca, Curuminaca, Coraveca (Curave), Curucaneca, Tapii; all are extinct. | It is mainly those over 40 years old who have difficulty with Spanish (1999). Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: Women: 0 0%, 1 0%, 2 20%, 3 40%, 4 30%, 5 10%; Men: 0 0%, 1 0%, 2 5%, 3 15%, 4 40%, 5 40%. | NT: 1975. | NT: 1975. | |
| otw | Ottawa | 10 monolinguals. Population includes 330 Ottawa, 5,065 Ojibwa in USA (1990 census). Ethnic population: 20,000 (Ottawa and Chippewa) in USA (1991 M. Dale Kincade). | Lower Michigan and upper Michigan near Sault Ste. Marie. | Related dialects or languages: Covareca, Curuminaca, Coraveca (Curave), Curucaneca, Tapii; all are extinct. | Ottawa is dying out in many areas. Concerted effort via language teaching in public schools and other efforts to reverse the decline. Probably all speakers also use English, some use other Ojibwa varieties. | Taught in primary schools. | Taught in primary schools. | |
| otx | Otomi, Texcatepec | 12,000 (1990 census). 3,000 monolinguals. | Northwestern Veracruz, Texcatepec Municipio: Texcatepec, Ayotuxtla, Zontecomatlán Municipio: Hueytepec, Amajac, Tzicatlán. | 70% to 79% intelligibility of Eastern Otomi, 57% of Ixmiquilpan, 44% of Tolimán, 40% of San Felipe, 20% of Ixtenco. | Speakers have low proficiency in Spanish. | Taught in primary schools. | Taught in primary schools. | |
| otz | Otomi, Ixtenco | 736 (1990 census). 4 monolinguals (1990 census). Ethnic population: 5,356 (1990 census). | Tlaxcala, San Juan Bautista Ixtenco. | 41% intelligibility of Estado De México Otomi (closest), 23% of Mezquital, and Eastern Highland Otomi, 22% of Tenango Otomi. | Speakers are older adults. Speakers also use Spanish. | Taught in primary schools. | Taught in primary schools. | |
| oua | Tagargrent | 5,000 (1995). | South of Constantine, near Mzab. Ouargla and Ngouça are the main centers. | Ouedghir (Wadi), Temacin, Tariyit. Related to Tumzabt, Temacine Tamazight, and Taznatit. Testing showed only moderate comprehension of Tumzabt. Tariyit is a possible dialect spoken by the Haratine (former slaves of the Ouargli people). | Vigorous. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Arabic. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| oub | Glio-Oubi | 2,500 in Côte d'Ivoire (1991). | Western Department. Tai Canton, Tai Subprefecture. 6 towns on each side of the border. | Closest lexical similarity is 75% with Twabo of Liberia and 73% with Trepo of Côte d'Ivoire. | High bilingualism with several surrounding languages in Côte d'Ivoire. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| oue | Oune | 1,900 (1990 SIL). | Bougainville Province, Kieta District, central mountains and southeast coast. | Most dialects are not functionally intelligible with Nasioi. | High bilingualism with several surrounding languages in Côte d'Ivoire. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| oun | !O!ung | 5,629 (2000 WCD). | Southern border with Namibia, surrounded by Luchazi. | Most dialects are not functionally intelligible with Nasioi. | High bilingualism with several surrounding languages in Côte d'Ivoire. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| owi | Owiniga | 330 (1998 NTM). | East Sepik Province, southeast of Nimo language. Villages: Yei, Amu, Inagri, Samo. | Most dialects are not functionally intelligible with Nasioi. | High bilingualism with several surrounding languages in Côte d'Ivoire. | Bible portions: 1991. | Bible portions: 1991. | |
| oyb | Oy | 14,947 (1995 census). 80% monolingual. | Attopeu Province, at the foot of the Bolaven Plateau near Pakse. | Riyao, Tamal Euy, Inn Tea, Kranyeu. Related to Jeng, Sapuan, Sok, The. | High bilingualism with several surrounding languages in Côte d'Ivoire. | Bible portions: 1991. | Bible portions: 1991. | |
| oyd | Oyda | 16,597 (1998 census). 6,244 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 14,075 (1998 census). | Northwest Omo Region, southwest of Sawla. | Lexical similarity 69% with Wolaytta, 61% with Basketo. | 4,040 second-language speakers. Some also use Wolaytta. | Literacy rate in second language: 18.7%. | Literacy rate in second language: 18.7%. | |
| oym | Wayampi | 530 in Brazil (2000 SIL). Population includes 520 speakers of Amapari in Brazil and 10 of Oiapoque. | Along tributaries of the upper Amapari River, west central Amapá, and northern Pará. 8 villages. | Oiyapoque Wayampi, Amapari Wayampi, Jari. | Language attitudes between speakers of the dialects have improved. Bilingual level estimates for Portuguese: 0 63%, 1 21%, 2 13%, 3 2.5%, 4 .5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| pab | Parecís | 1,200 (1994 SIL). | Mato Grosso, 6,000 square kilometers. 15 to 20 villages. | Oiyapoque Wayampi, Amapari Wayampi, Jari. | Speakers have some proficiency in Portuguese. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1995. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1995. | |
| pac | Pacoh | 13,224 in Laos (1995 census). 70% monolingual. | Saravan Province, Samouay District; Savannakhet Province, Nong District. | Pahi. | Speakers have some proficiency in Portuguese. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| pad | Paumarí | 700 (1994 SIL). | Amazonas. 3 villages, mainly on the Purus River. | Paumarm (Pammari), Kurukuru (Curucuru), Uaiai. 3 inherently intelligible dialects. | Half the speakers are under 12 years of age (1984 SIL). Speakers also use Portuguese. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1995. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1995. | |
| paf | Paranawát | Extinct. Ethnic population: 50 to 100 (1986 SIL). | Rondônia, tributaries of the Jiparaná (Machado) River and Sono River. | Paumarm (Pammari), Kurukuru (Curucuru), Uaiai. 3 inherently intelligible dialects. | Half the speakers are under 12 years of age (1984 SIL). Speakers also use Portuguese. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1995. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1995. | |
| pag | Pangasinan | 1,164,586 (1990 census). | Pangasinan Province, Luzon. | Paumarm (Pammari), Kurukuru (Curucuru), Uaiai. 3 inherently intelligible dialects. | Half the speakers are under 12 years of age (1984 SIL). Speakers also use Portuguese. | Grammar. Bible: 1915–1983. | Grammar. Bible: 1915–1983. | |
| pah | Tenharim | 493. Population includes 350 Tenharim (2000 SIL), 130 Parintintín (2000 SIL), 13 Diahói (1994 SIL). | Amazonas. The Diahói are on the Rio Marmelos, Karipuna on Jaci Paraná River Post in Rondônia, Morerebi on Rio Preto and Marmelos. 2 villages. | Tenharim (Tenharem, Tenharin), Parintintín, Kagwahiv (Kawaib), Karipuna Jaci Paraná, Mialát, Diahói (Jahui, Giahoi). Boca Negra is a related ethnic group. Tenharim and Kagwahiv are nearly identical. Eru-eu-wau-wau (Uru-eu-wau-wau) and Morerebi may be dialects. The Tenharim consider the Diahói to be relatives; slight dialect difference. The Morerebi are a family group who have not lived with the Tenharim for many years, and do not want contact with outside culture. The Amundava, Kayabí, Parintintín, Tenharim, Júma, Karipuna, and Diahói all call themselves 'Kagwahiva' (Kagwahibm, Kagwahiv, Kawahip, Kavahiva, Kawaib, Kagwahiph). | Speakers also use Portuguese. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| pai | Pe | 4,000 (2003 Blench). | Plateau State, Pankshin LGA, 17 km south of the main road from Jos-Amper, turning a few kilometers before Amper. 7 villages. | Tenharim (Tenharem, Tenharin), Parintintín, Kagwahiv (Kawaib), Karipuna Jaci Paraná, Mialát, Diahói (Jahui, Giahoi). Boca Negra is a related ethnic group. Tenharim and Kagwahiv are nearly identical. Eru-eu-wau-wau (Uru-eu-wau-wau) and Morerebi may be dialects. The Tenharim consider the Diahói to be relatives; slight dialect difference. The Morerebi are a family group who have not lived with the Tenharim for many years, and do not want contact with outside culture. The Amundava, Kayabí, Parintintín, Tenharim, Júma, Karipuna, and Diahói all call themselves 'Kagwahiva' (Kagwahibm, Kagwahiv, Kawahip, Kavahiva, Kawaib, Kagwahiph). | Vigorous. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| paj | Ipeka-Tapuia | 135 (1976 RC). | Içana, Amazonas. | Waliperi (Veliperi). Voegelin and Voegelin (1977) treat it as a dialect of Siuci (see Baniwa). | Vigorous. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| pak | Parakanã | 451 (1995 AMTB). | Pará, Xingú Park, lower Xingú River, near São Felix and Altamira towns. | A member of the Akwáwa cluster. | Vigorous. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| pam | Pampangan | 1,897,378 (1990 census). | Pampanga, Tarlac, and Bataan provinces, Luzon. | A member of the Akwáwa cluster. | Language of wider communication. Dominant language in Pampanga Province. | Bible: 1917–1994. | Bible: 1917–1994. | |
| pan | Panjabi, Eastern | 9,500 in Singapore (1987). Ethnic population: 14,000 (1993). | Nairobi. | Panjabi Proper. | State language of Punjab. | Gurumukhi and Devanagari scripts. Grammar. Bible: 1959–2002. | Gurumukhi and Devanagari scripts. Grammar. Bible: 1959–2002. | |
| pao | Paiute, Northern | 1,631 (1999 SIL). Ethnic population: 6,000 (1999 SIL). | Northern Nevada and adjacent areas of Oregon, California, and Idaho. Spoken on about twenty reservations spread out over 1,000 miles. | Bannock, North Northern Paiute (Mcdermitt), South Northern Paiute (Yerington-Schurz). Related to Mono. Almost every reservation has its own dialect. All dialects are inherently intelligible. | Greatest use in McDermitt. Informal language programs in Owens Valley Paiute, language classes, written materials for Gidutikad band. Many adults speak the language but most younger ones do not. | NT: 1985. | NT: 1985. | |
| pap | Papiamentu | 60,000 in Aruba (1999). | Curaçao, St. Maarten, Bonaire Islands off Venezuela coast, and islands off Nicaragua. Also spoken in Aruba, Netherlands, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands. | The language is becoming more like Spanish, which is prestigious. | Using both Papiamentu and Dutch is not considered an indication of lack of education. However, inability to use Dutch hinders social and political mobility, and leads to discontent. | Taught in first 2 years of primary school on Curaçao and Bonaire. Newspapers. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1997. | Taught in first 2 years of primary school on Curaçao and Bonaire. Newspapers. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1997. | |
| paq | Parya | 1,300 in Afghanistan (2000). | Hissar Valley in Tajikistan and some in the upper part of the Surkhandarya Valley in Uzbekistan. Also spoken in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan. | It may be a dialect of Marwari, related to Panjabi, or the Laghman dialect of Southeast Pashayi of Afghanistan. Subgroups: Kalu, Jitain, Juni, Maggar, Bisiyan, Mussali, Shuiya. | Used in the home. Speakers also use Tajiki. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. | |
| par | Panamint | 20. Ethnic population: 100 (1998 John E. McLaughlin). | The Panamint are in southeastern California, in and around southern Owens Valley around Owens Lake Coso Range, southwest of Darwin, and Little Lake area, southern Eureka Valley, southwest of Lida in Nevada, Saline Valley and eastern slopes of Inyo Mountains, Argus Range south of Darwin, northern Panamint Valley and Panamint Mountains north and central Death Valley, Grapevine Mountains and Funeral Range on California-Nevada border, west and southwest of Beatty, Nevada, Amargosa Desert, and area around Beatty. | Close to Shoshoni and Comanche. Not inherently intelligible with them. | Only used among oldest speakers to each other. They lament the shift to English by younger people. Younger speakers attempting to revive interest in Panamint among the younger generations, but with little success. Speakers are older adults. English is used in nearly all situations. | Literacy rate in second language: 90%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 90%. Grammar. | |
| pas | Papasena | 400 (1982 SIL). | Lakes Plain area on lower Idenburg River just east of juncture with Rouffaer River. | Lexical similarity 23% with Sikaritai. | Only used among oldest speakers to each other. They lament the shift to English by younger people. Younger speakers attempting to revive interest in Panamint among the younger generations, but with little success. Speakers are older adults. English is used in nearly all situations. | Literacy rate in second language: 90%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 90%. Grammar. | |
| pau | Palauan | 14,825 in Palau (2000 WCD). | Palau Islands. Also spoken in Guam. | Little dialect variation. | Official language in all states except Sonsorol, Tobi, Angaur. Vigorous. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1964. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1964. | |
| pav | Pakaásnovos | 1,833 (1994 SIL). | Rondônia, 7 villages. | Little dialect variation. | Official language in all states except Sonsorol, Tobi, Angaur. Vigorous. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | |
| paw | Pawnee | 20 (1997 Parks). Ethnic population: 2,500 (1997 Parks). | North central Oklahoma. | South Band, Skiri (Skidi). Close to Arikara, but not inherently intelligible with it. Kitsai is between Pawnee and Wichita, but closer to Pawnee. | Speakers are shifting to English. All speakers are older adults. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | |
| pax | Pankararé | Extinct. Ethnic population: 1,200 (1995 AMTB). | Bahía. | South Band, Skiri (Skidi). Close to Arikara, but not inherently intelligible with it. Kitsai is between Pawnee and Wichita, but closer to Pawnee. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | |
| pay | Pech | 994 (1993 Ramon D. Rivas). Ethnic population: 2,586 (1993 Ramon D. Rivas). | North central coast, Municipio Dulce Nombre de Culmí, Olancho Department,Santa María del Carbón. Speakers also in Las Marias, Gracias a Dios, Silin, Colon. | South Band, Skiri (Skidi). Close to Arikara, but not inherently intelligible with it. Kitsai is between Pawnee and Wichita, but closer to Pawnee. | More active in using Pech in Agua Amarilla and La Laguna in El Carbón. Speakers are older adults. Speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | |
| paz | Pankararú | Extinct. Ethnic population: 3,676 (1995 AMTB). | Pernambuco, Alagoas. | Possibly related to Kirirí. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Portuguese. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | Bible portions: 1975–1984. | |
| pbb | Páez | 71,400 to 83,300 (2000 SIL). 35,700 to 41,650 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 122,638 (2000 WCD). | Central Andes Range near Popayán, Cauca. | Pitayo, Paniquita (Panikita). | Many are passing the language on, but some prefer to have children use only Spanish. Some oral and written use in religious services, commerce. Earlier, people were embarrassed because of negative attitudes from nonspeakers. Attitudes toward the language have improved since development of the written form. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 25%, 2 13%, 3 10%, 4 2%, 5 0%. 25% speak Páez and some Spanish, 25% speak Páez and are fluent in Spanish. Spanish is the predominant language of instruction in schools. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Some attempts have been made to promote the language, mainly literacy courses. Some private primary schools teach reading and writing in Páez along with Spanish. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Some attempts have been made to promote the language, mainly literacy courses. Some private primary schools teach reading and writing in Páez along with Spanish. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980. | |
| pbc | Patamona | 4,700 (1990 J. Forte). Ethnic population: 5,000 (2000 Forte). | West central, about 13 villages. | Close to Macushi but not inherently intelligible. Marginally intelligible with Arecuna. Closest to Akawaio, but vocabulary differences and language attitudes make separate literature necessary. | Many are passing the language on, but some prefer to have children use only Spanish. Some oral and written use in religious services, commerce. Earlier, people were embarrassed because of negative attitudes from nonspeakers. Attitudes toward the language have improved since development of the written form. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 25%, 2 13%, 3 10%, 4 2%, 5 0%. 25% speak Páez and some Spanish, 25% speak Páez and are fluent in Spanish. Spanish is the predominant language of instruction in schools. | People in the village of Paramakatoi are literate in English and Patamona. Some in other villages are literate in English. NT: 1974. | People in the village of Paramakatoi are literate in English and Patamona. Some in other villages are literate in English. NT: 1974. | |
| pbe | Popoloca, Mezontla | 2,000 (1993 SIL). | State of Puebla, 1 town. | 52% intelligibility of Atzingo Popoloca, 35% of Tlacoyalco (Northern Popoloca), 11% of Otlaltepec. | Many are passing the language on, but some prefer to have children use only Spanish. Some oral and written use in religious services, commerce. Earlier, people were embarrassed because of negative attitudes from nonspeakers. Attitudes toward the language have improved since development of the written form. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 25%, 2 13%, 3 10%, 4 2%, 5 0%. 25% speak Páez and some Spanish, 25% speak Páez and are fluent in Spanish. Spanish is the predominant language of instruction in schools. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| pbf | Popoloca, Coyotepec | 500 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 7,000. | State of Puebla, west of Tehuacán city, east of Ahuatempan, towns of Coyotepec and San Mateo (2 miles from Coyotepec). | San Vicente Coyotepec Popoloca, San Mateo Zoyamazalco Popoloca. 41% intelligibility of Otlaltepec, 23% of Atzingo, 15% of Tlacoyalco Northern Popoloca. San Mateo may be intelligible with Coyotepec, San Felipe, or may be a separate language. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| pbg | Paraujano | Extinct. Ethnic population: 4,306 (1975 Gaceta Indigenista). | Lake Maracaibo, near Guajiro, Zulia State. | Alile, Toa. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| pbh | Eñepa | 1,200. Nearly all are monolingual. | 150 mile perimeter south of Caicaro de Orinoco basin of the Cuchivero River; Bolivar State. Two groups: jungle and highland. 20 or more villages. | Alile, Toa. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1991. | Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1991. | |
| pbi | Parkwa | 30,000 (1993 SIL). | Far North Province, Mayo-Sava Division, Mora Subdivision, west and southwest of Mora. | Alile, Toa. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. NT: 1992. | Dictionary. NT: 1992. | |
| pbl | Mak | 5,693 (2000 WCD). | Taraba State, Karim Lamido LGA, northeast of Karim Lamido town, off the Banbuka to Karim-Lamido road. | Panya, Zo. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. NT: 1992. | Dictionary. NT: 1992. | |
| pbo | Papel | 125,550 (2002). | Bissau Island. | Close to Mankanya and Mandyak. 3 dialects. | Speakers also use Spanish. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| pbp | Badyara | 1,685 in Senegal (2002). | South central, one village that is all Bajara. | Biafada is the closest language, with 52% lexical similarity. | The speakers may use Mandinka as second language. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| pbs | Pame, Central | 4,350 (1990 census). | San Luis Potosí, Santa María Acapulco. | Biafada is the closest language, with 52% lexical similarity. | Most children still speak Central Pame. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 70%, 2 15%, 3 5%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Bible portions: 1953–1998. | Bible portions: 1953–1998. | |
| pbt | Pashto, Southern | 26,060 in United Arab Emirates (2000 WCD). | Khorasan on Afghanistan border east of Qa'en. | Southwestern Pashto, Kandahar Pashto (Qandahar Pashto). | Men are bilingual in Western Farsi. | Perso-Arabic script. Grammar. | Perso-Arabic script. Grammar. | |
| pbu | Pashto, Northern | 100,000 in United Arab Emirates (1986). | Central Ghilzai area. | Northwestern Pakhto, Ghilzai, Durani. | One of the two official languages taught in schools. The Ghilzai speakers are nomadic and 24% of the national population. The Durani, 16%, live in permanent settlements. Speakers also use Farsi. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| pbv | Pnar | 4,000 in Bangladesh (2002). | Along the India border in the northeast; Sylhet Division, Sylhet District, near Jaflong, Tamabil, Jaintiapur, and north of Raipur; Moulavi Bazar District, near Fenchuganj, Madhabkunda, Barlekha, Goalbari, Fultala, Alinagar, Islampur, Khajori, Rashidpur, Satgoan, Kamalganj. | Jaintia (Synteng), Nongtung. Formerly considered to be a dialect of Khasi. Jaintia dialect has 12 spoken forms: Jowai, Shangpung, Batau, Raliang, Sutnga, Sumer, Martiang, Barato, Rymbai, Lakadong, Mynso, Nongtalang. All are intelligible except for Nongtalang which is akin to Khmer. Jowai is the standard spoken form. | Most speakers have high proficiency in War. | Roman script. Radio programs. | Roman script. Radio programs. | |
| pby | Pyu | 100 (1978 SIL). | Village of Biake No. 2 on the October River just east of Papua, Indonesia border. Not in Papua, Indonesia. | Jaintia (Synteng), Nongtung. Formerly considered to be a dialect of Khasi. Jaintia dialect has 12 spoken forms: Jowai, Shangpung, Batau, Raliang, Sutnga, Sumer, Martiang, Barato, Rymbai, Lakadong, Mynso, Nongtalang. All are intelligible except for Nongtalang which is akin to Khmer. Jowai is the standard spoken form. | Most speakers have high proficiency in War. | Roman script. Radio programs. | Roman script. Radio programs. | |
| pbz | Palu | 4,775 (2000 WCD). | Village of Biake No. 2 on the October River just east of Papua, Indonesia border. Not in Papua, Indonesia. | Jaintia (Synteng), Nongtung. Formerly considered to be a dialect of Khasi. Jaintia dialect has 12 spoken forms: Jowai, Shangpung, Batau, Raliang, Sutnga, Sumer, Martiang, Barato, Rymbai, Lakadong, Mynso, Nongtalang. All are intelligible except for Nongtalang which is akin to Khmer. Jowai is the standard spoken form. | Most speakers have high proficiency in War. | Roman script. Radio programs. | Roman script. Radio programs. | |
| pca | Popoloca, Santa Inés Ahuatempan | 4,000 to 5,000 (2000 SIL). Few monolinguals. | State of Puebla, west of Coyotepec and Tehuacán city, 2 towns. | Ahuatempan Popoloca, Todos Santos Almolonga Popoloca. 75% intelligibility of San Felipe Popoloca (closest). | All domains among older adults. Popoloca used half the time in local commerce, administration. Most children under 15 speak only Spanish. Negative language attitude. Spanish is the second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 55%. 500 can read it, 5 can write it. Bible portions: 1994. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 55%. 500 can read it, 5 can write it. Bible portions: 1994. | |
| pcb | Pear | 1,300 (1988 govt.). | Southwestern, Kompong Thom. | Ahuatempan Popoloca, Todos Santos Almolonga Popoloca. 75% intelligibility of San Felipe Popoloca (closest). | All domains among older adults. Popoloca used half the time in local commerce, administration. Most children under 15 speak only Spanish. Negative language attitude. Spanish is the second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 55%. 500 can read it, 5 can write it. Bible portions: 1994. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 55%. 500 can read it, 5 can write it. Bible portions: 1994. | |
| pcc | Bouyei | 49,098 in Viet Nam (1999 census). | Lao Cai, Hà Giang, and Lai Chau provinces. | Tu-Dí, Nhang, Pú Nà. | Vigorous. Rare oral use in local administration, commerce, education. All ages. Chinese is the second language of all bilingual speakers. Written Chinese is in common use. | Literacy rate in second language: 46%. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Dictionary. | Literacy rate in second language: 46%. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Dictionary. | |
| pce | Palaung, Pale | 5,000 in Thailand (1989). | Western Yunnan, Luxi County, just east of Rumai. | Bulei, Raojin. | Vigorous. 50% of the De'ang speak Pale. Some speakers of other languages use it as second language. All domains. All ages. Some also speak Lü, Jingpho, or Chinese. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| pcf | Paliyan | 8,615 (1991 census). | Kerala, Idukki district, Pirmed tahsil, Kumily, Vandanmedu, Chakkupallam panchayats; Ernakulam, Kottayam districts; Tamil Nadu, Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Coimbatore districts; Karnataka. | Mala Pulayan (Hill Pulaya, Karavazhi). Lexical similarity 75% with Tamil, 62% with Malayalam, 85% with Mala Pulayan. | Speakers have high proficiency in Tamil. Some are becoming literate in Malayalam. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| pcg | Paniya | 63,827 (1981 census). Population includes 56,952 in Kerala, 6,393 in Tamil Nadu, 482 in Karnataka. | Kerala, Wynad, Kozhikode, Kannur, Malappuram districts; Tamil Nadu, west of Nilgiris Hillls; Karnataka. | Intelligibility of Malappura Paniya by Kodagu is 66%. Dialects have 79% to 88% lexical similarity with Malappura Paniya, Kodagu has 71%. | Used in the home and religion. Christians pray in Malayalam. State languages: Malayalam, Tamil, or Kannada used with non-Paniya speakers. | Literacy rate in second language: 11% (1981 census). Malayalam in Kerala, Tamil in Tamil Nadu, and Kannada in Karnataka. | Literacy rate in second language: 11% (1981 census). Malayalam in Kerala, Tamil in Tamil Nadu, and Kannada in Karnataka. | |
| pch | Pardhan | 116,919 (1981 census). | Andhra Pradesh, Adilbad District; Madhya Pradesh, Seoni, Mandla, Chhindawara, Hoshangabad, Betul, Balaghat, Jabalpur districts; Chhattisgarh, Raipur, Bilaspur districts; Maharashtra, Bhandara, Garhchiroli, Nagpur, Wardha,Yavatmal districts. | Probably more than 1 language. | Most speak Hindi in Madhya Pradesh, Marathi in Maharashtra. | Literacy rate in second language: 11% (1981 census). Malayalam in Kerala, Tamil in Tamil Nadu, and Kannada in Karnataka. | Literacy rate in second language: 11% (1981 census). Malayalam in Kerala, Tamil in Tamil Nadu, and Kannada in Karnataka. | |
| pci | Duruwa | 75,000 (2000). Ethnic population: 100,000 in the ethnic group (1986), 65% in Bastar, 35% in Koraput. | Chhattisgarh, Bastar Disctrict, southeast Jagdalpur Tahsil; Orissa, Koraput District. | Tiriya, Nethanar, Dharba, Kukanar. Nethanar dialect is central. Lexical similarity 90% to 96% between dialects, 70% to 82% lexical similarity with Halbi. | 90% of the ethnic group speaks Parji as first language. Parji is spoken by the Madiya for communicating with the Dhurwa people. Halbi is the second language. Part of the ethnic group speaks Halbi as first language (around Jagdalpur, Bastar District); 1% speak Oriya; less than 2% use Bhatri (northern Bastar District). Hindi is the state language, but it is not well known except by the educated. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Devanagari and Oriya scripts. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Devanagari and Oriya scripts. | |
| pcj | Parenga | Ethnic population: 767 (2002). | Orissa, Koraput District; Andhra Pradesh. | Tiriya, Nethanar, Dharba, Kukanar. Nethanar dialect is central. Lexical similarity 90% to 96% between dialects, 70% to 82% lexical similarity with Halbi. | Study being done at Telugu University. Remembered only by a few older adults and is not actively spoken by anyone (Chamberlain 1997). Probably extinct. Speakers are shifting to Adivasi Oriya. | Literacy rate in second language: 11.5% (1981 census). | Literacy rate in second language: 11.5% (1981 census). | |
| pck | Chin, Paite | 8,900 in Myanmar (1983). | Tiddim District, Chin Hills. | Bukpi (Bukpui), Dapzal (Dapzar), Dim, Dimpi, Lamzang, Lousau, Saizang, Sihzang, Telzang (Teizang), Tuichiap. Related to Thado Chin, Tedim Chin, Ralte, Zomi. | Speakers also use Mizo. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1971. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1971. | |
| pcl | Pardhi | 119,700 (2000). | Andhra Pradesh; Madhya Pradesh; Gujarat; Maharashtra; scattered over wide area. | Neelishikari, Pittala Bhasha, Takari. Probably more than 1 language (Lango). Possibly a dialect of Bhili. | Speakers also use Mizo. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1971. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1971. | |
| pcm | Pidgin, Nigerian | No estimate available. | Southern states and in Sabon Garis of the northern states, coastal and urban areas. | Lagos Pidgin, Delta Pidgin, Cross River Pidgin, Benin Pidgin. No unified standard. The dialects listed may be very different from each other. Partially intelligible with Krio of Sierra Leone and Cameroon Pidgin. | Trade language. Increasing in importance and use. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. Used in novels, plays, advertising. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pcn | Piti | 5,534 (2000 WCD). | Kaduna State, Saminaka LGA. | Riban (Ribam). | Trade language. Increasing in importance and use. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. Used in novels, plays, advertising. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pcp | Pacahuara | 17 (2000 W. Adelaar). Ethnic population: 18 (2000 W. Adelaar). | Northwest Beni. | Riban (Ribam). | Trade language. Increasing in importance and use. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. Used in novels, plays, advertising. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pcr | Panang | 12,000 (2002). | Tibet. | Riban (Ribam). | Trade language. Increasing in importance and use. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. Used in novels, plays, advertising. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pcw | Pyapun | 17,284 (2000 WCD). | Plateau State, Shendam LGA. | Related to Tal and Montol. | Trade language. Increasing in importance and use. It is a creole with native speakers, as well as used as a pidgin between Africans and Europeans, and Africans from different languages. Used in novels, plays, advertising. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pda | Anam | 1,069 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province, villages around Josephstaal. | Related to Tal and Montol. | Speakers also use Anamgura, Mum, Tok Pisin. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | Poetry. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1957. | |
| pdc | German, Pennsylvania | 15,000 in Canada (1995). | Kitchener-Waterloo area, Ontario. | Amish Pennsylvania German, Non-Amish Pennsylvania German (Pennsylvanisch Deitsch). | Plain community not shifting to English, but maintains stable bilingualism (Louden 1987). All domains. Preaching in Pennsylvania German, Scripture in High German in Amish religious services. Nonplain community: youngest fluent speakers 40 to 50 years of age (Louden 1987). Only preschoolers are monolingual. School children and adults also speak English. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | |
| pdi | Pa Di | 300 in Viet Nam. | Lao Cai Province, Muong Khuong District. | Amish Pennsylvania German, Non-Amish Pennsylvania German (Pennsylvanisch Deitsch). | Plain community not shifting to English, but maintains stable bilingualism (Louden 1987). All domains. Preaching in Pennsylvania German, Scripture in High German in Amish religious services. Nonplain community: youngest fluent speakers 40 to 50 years of age (Louden 1987). Only preschoolers are monolingual. School children and adults also speak English. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | |
| pdo | Padoe | 6,000 (1991 D. Andersen). | South Sulawesi, eastern Luwu District in Nuha, Malili, and Mangkutana subdistricts; Central Sulawesi, Banggai District, 2 villages in Mori Atas Subdistrict and 1 village in Pamona Utara Subdistrict. | 2 dialects. Lexical similarity 73% to 86% with Mori Atas, 75% with Mori Bawah. | Vigorous. Bilingual level estimates for Indonesian: 0 0%, 1–2 82%, 2+ 33%, 3 17%, 4 1%, 5 0%. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | Roman script. NT: 1994–2002. | |
| pdt | Plautdietsch | 11,974 in the USA (2000). | Hillsboro, Kansas; Reedley, California; and Corn, Oklahoma. | 50% intelligible with other Low German languages, Standard German, Pennsylvania German, or Hutterite German. | 5% speak Standard German, 98% speak English as second language. | Literacy rate in second language: 95%. | Literacy rate in second language: 95%. | |
| pdu | Kayan | 40,900 in Myanmar (1983). Population total all countries: 41,050. | Kayah State, Mobyè State, town of Phekon in the southern Shan States, and hills east of Toungoo. A few villages in Thailand. Also spoken in Thailand. | 50% intelligible with other Low German languages, Standard German, Pennsylvania German, or Hutterite German. | 5% speak Standard German, 98% speak English as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| pea | Indonesian, Peranakan | 20,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | East and central Java. | It is based in Indonesian and Javanese. It has Mandarin elements in contrast to Baba Malay, which has Hokkien elements. | Monolinguals are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| peb | Pomo, Eastern | Extinct. | Formerly in California, Clear Lake area. | It is based in Indonesian and Javanese. It has Mandarin elements in contrast to Baba Malay, which has Hokkien elements. | Monolinguals are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| pec | Pesisir, Southern | 400,000 (1976 D. Walker). | South Sumatra. | Kota Agung (Southwest Lampung), Way Lima, Kalianda (Southeast Lampung), Telukbetung, Talang Padang. Lexical similarity 79% between Kota Agung and Kalianda, 70% between Kalianda and Komering, 78% between Kota Agung and Pubian, 78% between Kota Agung and Krui, 78% between Way Lima and Kalianda, 72% between Kalianda and Menggala (Abung). | Monolinguals are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| ped | Mala | 1,390 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province, Bogia District. | Kota Agung (Southwest Lampung), Way Lima, Kalianda (Southeast Lampung), Telukbetung, Talang Padang. Lexical similarity 79% between Kota Agung and Kalianda, 70% between Kalianda and Komering, 78% between Kota Agung and Pubian, 78% between Kota Agung and Krui, 78% between Way Lima and Kalianda, 72% between Kalianda and Menggala (Abung). | Increasing use of Tok Pisin. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | |
| pee | Taje | 350 (2001 N. Himmelmann). | Central Sulawesi, village of Tanampedagi in Ampibabo Subdistrict; also near Sipeso in Sindue Subdistrict. | Kota Agung (Southwest Lampung), Way Lima, Kalianda (Southeast Lampung), Telukbetung, Talang Padang. Lexical similarity 79% between Kota Agung and Kalianda, 70% between Kalianda and Komering, 78% between Kota Agung and Pubian, 78% between Kota Agung and Krui, 78% between Way Lima and Kalianda, 72% between Kalianda and Menggala (Abung). | Increasing use of Tok Pisin. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | |
| pef | Pomo, Northeastern | Extinct. | Formerly in California, Coast Range Valley of Story Creek; a tributary of the Sacramento River. | Kota Agung (Southwest Lampung), Way Lima, Kalianda (Southeast Lampung), Telukbetung, Talang Padang. Lexical similarity 79% between Kota Agung and Kalianda, 70% between Kalianda and Komering, 78% between Kota Agung and Pubian, 78% between Kota Agung and Krui, 78% between Way Lima and Kalianda, 72% between Kalianda and Menggala (Abung). | Increasing use of Tok Pisin. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | Literacy rate in first language: 25% to 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Bible portions: 1982–1988. | |
| peg | Pengo | 350,000 (2000). | Orissa, Koraput District, Kashipur, Pappadahandi, Nowrangapur, Dasamantapur and Nandapur tahsils, Kalahandi District. | Indi, Awe. | Many Pengo outside the area speak only Oriya (Burrow). Most are fluent in Oriya (Burrow). | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| peh | Bonan | 6,000 (1999 Junast). Ethnic population: 10,000 (1999 Junast), including 6,000 Jishishan, 4,000 Tongren. | Southwestern Gansu Province in the Jishishan Bao'an-Dongxiang-Sala Autonomous County of the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, and Bonan-speaking Tu in Tongren, eastern Qinghai Province. | Jishishan (Dahejia, Dajiahe, Dakheczjha), Tongren (Tungyen). Jishishan subdialects are Ganhetan and Dadun; Tongren subdialects are Nianduhu, Guomari, Gajiuri, and Lower Bao'an village. Jishishan has been influenced by Chinese, Tongren by Tibetan. There are phonological and grammatical differences between the two, and inherent intelligibility may be low. | Oral use in religion, local administration. Positive language attitude. Written Chinese is in common use. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pei | Chichimeca-Jonaz | 200 (1993 K. Olson Instituto Betania). | State of Guanajuato, San Luís de la Paz, Jonáz village. | Jishishan (Dahejia, Dajiahe, Dakheczjha), Tongren (Tungyen). Jishishan subdialects are Ganhetan and Dadun; Tongren subdialects are Nianduhu, Guomari, Gajiuri, and Lower Bao'an village. Jishishan has been influenced by Chinese, Tongren by Tibetan. There are phonological and grammatical differences between the two, and inherent intelligibility may be low. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pej | Pomo, Northern | Extinct. | Formerly in California, Sherwood Valley area. | Guidiville, Sherwood Valley. | Became extinct in 1994 (M. Krauss). | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pek | Penchal | 550 (1982 SIL). | Manus Province, Rambutyo Island. | 3 nearly identical dialects. | Speakers are moderately bilingual in Titan. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pel | Pekal | 30,000 (1989). | Southern Sumatra, west coast from north of Ipuh to Tembesi River, to near Argamakmur in the south. | Related to Minangkabau with strong Rejang influences. | Speakers are moderately bilingual in Titan. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pen | Penesak | 20,000 (1989). | Southern Sumatra, around Prabumulih. | Related to Minangkabau with strong Rejang influences. | Speakers are moderately bilingual in Titan. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pep | Kunja | 294 (2003 SIL). | Western Province, extreme southwest. | Gambadi, Semariji, Kánchá, Kámá. Related to Kanum, Aramba, Bothar, Rouku. | Speakers are moderately bilingual in Titan. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| peq | Pomo, Southern | 1 (1994 L. Hinton). | California. | Gambadi, Semariji, Kánchá, Kámá. Related to Kanum, Aramba, Bothar, Rouku. | Members of the ethnic group now speak English. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 24%. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| pes | Farsi, Western | 80,000 in United Arab Emirates (1986). | Scattered in cities along the coast. Many in a community in Jabroo, on the way out of Mutrah, going toward Ruwi. | Ketabi, Tehrani, Shirazi, Old Shirazi, Qazvini, Mahalhamadani, Kashani, Esfahani, Sedehi, Kermani, Araki, Shirazjahromi, Shahrudi Kazeruni, Mashadi (Meshed), Basseri, Yazdi, Bandari. The literary language is virtually identical in Iran and Afghanistan, with very minor lexical differences. Zargari may be a dialect used by goldsmiths (also see Balkan Romani in Iran). Dialect shading into Dari in Afghanistan and Tajiki in Tajikistan. Many of the dialects may be separate languages. | Many women speak only Farsi. Men who go outside the community speak Arabic as second language, and many know 2 or 3 other languages. | Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1838–1995. | Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1838–1995. | |
| pev | Pémono | 1 (2000 M-C Mattei Muller). | Lives with the Yabarana in an Upper Majagua village. | Close to Mapoyo and Yawarana. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Spanish. May be extinct. 80-year-old woman in 1998. | Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1838–1995. | Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1838–1995. |
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