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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| dru | Rukai | 10,543 (2002 Council of Indigenous Peoples, Executive Yuan, ROC). Ethnic population: 10,543. | South central mountains, west of the Pyuma, 11 villages around Ping Tung, and 2 or 3 villages near Taitung. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | All domains. Some older adults are monolingual. Some speak Pyuma. Some older adults speak Japanese. Budai people speak Taiwanese. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2001. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2001. | |
| drw | Darwazi | 10,000 (1983). | Town of Darwaz on the Amu Darya River, in the northernmost tip of Afghanistan. May also be in Tajikistan. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | All domains. Some older adults are monolingual. Some speak Pyuma. Some older adults speak Japanese. Budai people speak Taiwanese. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. | |
| dry | Darai | 10,210 (2001 census). Ethnic population: 14,859. | Inner Terai, Narayani Zone, Chitawan District; Gandaki Zone, Tanahu District. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | Speakers also use Nepali. | Literacy rate in second language: 36.5% (1991 census). | Literacy rate in second language: 36.5% (1991 census). | |
| dsb | Sorbian, Lower | 14,000 (1991 Elle). Ethnic population: 60,000. | Niederlausitz (Dolna Luzica) in eastern Germany, Cottbus (Chósebuz) the main town. The ethnic group has over 60 towns and villages. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | Speakers are older adults. | Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Bible: 1796–1824. | Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Bible: 1796–1824. | |
| dse | Dutch Sign Language | 20,000 (1986). There are 1,500,000 hearing impaired, 15,000 deaf. | Niederlausitz (Dolna Luzica) in eastern Germany, Cottbus (Chósebuz) the main town. The ethnic group has over 60 towns and villages. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | All ages. | TV. Dictionary. | TV. Dictionary. | |
| dsh | Daasanach | 2,500 in Kenya (1980 SIL). | Northeastern shore of Lake Turkana, around Illeret, Marsabit District, Eastern Province. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | 231 second-language speakers. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| dsi | Disa | 2,366 (2000 WCD). | South, Moyen-Chari Prefecture, Kyabé Subprefecture, northwest of Lake Iro. | Budai, Labuan, Tanan, Maga, Tona, Mantauran. The Mantauran, Tona and Maga dialects are divergent. | 231 second-language speakers. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| dsl | Danish Sign Language | 3,500 (1986 Gallaudet Univ.). | South, Moyen-Chari Prefecture, Kyabé Subprefecture, northwest of Lake Iro. | Some signs are related to French Sign Language. Intelligible with Swedish and Norwegian sign languages with only moderate difficulty. Not intelligible with Finnish Sign Language. | Used in all 5 state schools for the deaf. Signed interpretation required in court, college classes, at important public events, in job training, social services, and mental health programs. Instruction provided for parents of deaf children, for other hearing people. There is a committee on national sign language, an organization for sign language teachers. Signed Danish is distinct, but used in intercommunication with some hearing people. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dsn | Dusner | 20 (2000). | Around the town of Dusner, west coast of Cenderawasih Bay, Wandamen Bay area. Only one village. | Some signs are related to French Sign Language. Intelligible with Swedish and Norwegian sign languages with only moderate difficulty. Not intelligible with Finnish Sign Language. | Used in all 5 state schools for the deaf. Signed interpretation required in court, college classes, at important public events, in job training, social services, and mental health programs. Instruction provided for parents of deaf children, for other hearing people. There is a committee on national sign language, an organization for sign language teachers. Signed Danish is distinct, but used in intercommunication with some hearing people. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dso | Oriya, Desiya | 50,000 (2003). | Orissa, Koraput district, Lamtaput block, Nowrangpur District. | Intelligible with Adivasi Oriya but uses different scripts. Lexical similarity 80% to 85% with Adivasi Oriya dialects in Andhra Pradesh. | Used in all 5 state schools for the deaf. Signed interpretation required in court, college classes, at important public events, in job training, social services, and mental health programs. Instruction provided for parents of deaf children, for other hearing people. There is a committee on national sign language, an organization for sign language teachers. Signed Danish is distinct, but used in intercommunication with some hearing people. | Oriya script. | Oriya script. | |
| dsq | Tadaksahak | 30,000 in Mali (1995). Population total all countries: 31,800. | 7th region, about 300 km east-west by 200 km north-south with Ménaka as geographic center. They travel into Niger and Algeria. Also spoken in Algeria. | Close to Tagdal (Niger), Tasawaq (Niger), Korandje (Algeria). Northern Songhay Languages share features from Songhay and Tamasheq. | Vigorous. All ages. Reported to also use Tamasheq, although women and children in isolated encampments understand very little. | Oriya script. | Oriya script. | |
| dta | Daur | 96,085 in China (1999 Dong Ying). About 24,270 are monolingual. Ethnic population: 121,357 (1990 census). | Inner Mongolia, Hailar Prefecture, and border of Heilongjiang Province, Qiqihar Prefecture, and northwest Xinjiang, Tacheng Prefecture. Also spoken in Mongolia. | Buteha (Bataxan), Haila'er (Hailar), Qiqiha'er (Qiqihar, Tsitsikhar). | Official regional language. All domains. It has moderately vigorous use among adults, but decreasing use among young people and children. Speakers seem indifferent toward preservation of Daur. Speakers also use Chinese or Mongolian. A few also speak Ewenki, Kazakh, Oroqen, or Manchu. Speakers are reported to have high and widespread levels of bilingualism in Chinese. Chinese is the language of schools. | Literacy rate in second language: 81%. Some literacy in Mongolian among those 30 to 50 years of age in Hala'er. Radio programs. Films. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in second language: 81%. Some literacy in Mongolian among those 30 to 50 years of age in Hala'er. Radio programs. Films. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dtb | Kadazan, Labuk-Kinabatangan | 20,583 (2000 SIL). Population includes 14,000 to 16,000 Labuk (1987 SIL), 7,000 to 8,000 Sungai (1982 SIL). | Northeast Sabah, Sandakan, Labuk-Sugut, and Kinabatangan districts. | Mangkaak (Mangkahak, Mangkok, Mangkak), Sukang, Labuk, Lamag Sungai (Sungei). | Speakers also use Sabah Malay. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| dtk | Dogon, Tene Kan | 127,000 (1998 Durieux). | From Bankass nearly to Koro. | Tengu Tingi, Togo Kan, Sagara, Guimini Kan. | Speakers also use Sabah Malay. | NT: 1996. | NT: 1996. | |
| dtm | Dogon, Tomo Kan | 132,800 in Mali (1998 Durieux). | A few villages. | Distinct from Tommo So (Tombo). | Speakers also use Sabah Malay. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dtp | Dusun, Central | 140,500 (1991 SIL). Population includes 50,000 Ranau (1989 UBS), 70,000 Bundu (1990 UBS), 500 (?) Kuala Monsok Dusun (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Beaufort, Kota Belud, Kota Kinabalu, Kota Marudu, Kinabatangan, Keningau, Labuk-Sugut, Penampang, Papar, Ranau, Tambunan, Tenom, Tuaran, and Tawau districts. | Dusun Sinulihan (Sinulihan), Kadazan-Tagaro (Tagaro), Kiundu, Pahu', Sokid, Tindal, Menggatal (Kiulu, Telipok), Ranau, Bundu (Taginambur), Beaufort, Luba, Kuala Monsok Dusun. Ranau dialect is different from Ranau in Sumatra, Indonesia. | Speakers also use Sabah Malay. | Dictionary. Bible: 2000. | Dictionary. Bible: 2000. | |
| dtr | Lotud | 5,000 (1985 SIL). | Tuaran District, just north of Kota Kinabalu, a 10-mile radius around Tuaran town. | Dusun Sinulihan (Sinulihan), Kadazan-Tagaro (Tagaro), Kiundu, Pahu', Sokid, Tindal, Menggatal (Kiulu, Telipok), Ranau, Bundu (Taginambur), Beaufort, Luba, Kuala Monsok Dusun. Ranau dialect is different from Ranau in Sumatra, Indonesia. | Speakers also use Sabah Malay. | Bible portions: 1992. | Bible portions: 1992. | |
| dts | Dogon, Toro So | 50,000 (1998 Durieux). | Spoken along the cliff from Yendoumman to Idyeli. | Different from Dogoso and Dogosé in Burkina Faso. | National language. | Dictionary. NT: 1957–1994. | Dictionary. NT: 1957–1994. | |
| dtt | Dogon, Toro Tegu | 2,900 (1998 Durieux). | About 80 km east of Douentza along a paved road. Approximately 15 villages. | Different from Dogoso and Dogosé in Burkina Faso. | National language. | Dictionary. NT: 1957–1994. | Dictionary. NT: 1957–1994. | |
| dub | Dubli | 202,000 (1991). | Gujarat, Surat, Valsad, Bharuch, Vadodara districts; Maharashtra, Thana District, Talasari and Dahanu areas; Dadra and Nagar Haveli; Daman and Diu; Karnataka: Rajasthan. | Different from Dogoso and Dogosé in Burkina Faso. | National language. | Literacy rate in second language: 10%. | Literacy rate in second language: 10%. | |
| duc | Duna | 11,000 (1991 SIL). | Southern Highlands Province, Lake Kopiago and Koroba districts, some in Western Highlands Province. | Different from Dogoso and Dogosé in Burkina Faso. | National language. | NT: 1976. | NT: 1976. | |
| dud | Hun-Saare | 73,000 (1985 Patience Ahmed). Population includes 10,000 outside the traditional area. | Kebbi State, Wasagu and Yauri LGAs; Niger State, Rijau LGA, and migrants farther south. Dialect centers are Rijau-Senjir, Dukku-Iri, Zente-Dogo, and Darengi. | Eastern Duka (Hun, Et-Hun, Hune), Western Duka (Es-Saare). Lexical similarity 85% between Rijau and Dukku dialects; 63% Duka with Puku-Geeri-Keri-Wipsi, 50% with Lela, 47% with Gwamhi-Wuri. | National language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 2%. Bible portions: 1974–1979. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 2%. Bible portions: 1974–1979. | |
| due | Agta, Umiray Dumaget | 3,000 (1994 SIL). | Quezon Province, Luzon. | Palaui Island Agta, Anglat Agta. | Some parents pass it on to children, Used mainly among adults. All domains, home, religion, commerce. Some are proud of their culture and language but many seem indifferent to them. Most speakers are also fluent in Tagalog or Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | |
| duh | Dungra Bhil | 100,000 (2000). | Gujarat, Baroda District; Madhya Pradesh; Maharashtra. | 84% to 89% intelligibility of Bhilori of Maharashtra. Lexical similarity 86% between subgroups, 71% to 87% with Bhilori and Noiri Bhili, below 53% with Girasia. | Some parents pass it on to children, Used mainly among adults. All domains, home, religion, commerce. Some are proud of their culture and language but many seem indifferent to them. Most speakers are also fluent in Tagalog or Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | |
| dui | Dumun | 35 (2000 Wurm). | Madang Province. | Related to Yabong, Ganglau, Saep. | Some parents pass it on to children, Used mainly among adults. All domains, home, religion, commerce. Some are proud of their culture and language but many seem indifferent to them. Most speakers are also fluent in Tagalog or Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. | |
| duj | Dhuwal | 500 (1983 Black). Population includes 200 Djapu, 160 Liyagalawumirr (clan names). | Roper River, Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. | Dhuwaya, Dhuwal, Liyagawumirr, Marrangu, Marrakulu, Djapu, Liyagalawumirr, Datiwuy. | Speakers also use Djambarrpuyngu. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| duk | Duduela | 469 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Madang Province. | Related to Kwato, Ogea, Uya, Rerau, Jilim, Yangulam. | Speakers also use Djambarrpuyngu. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dul | Agta, Alabat Island | 30 (2000 Wurm). | East of Quezon Province, Luzon. | Related to Kwato, Ogea, Uya, Rerau, Jilim, Yangulam. | 20% to 60% of the ethnic group speaks Agta. Used in the home. A few children speak Agta. Neutral language attitude. Speakers also use Tagalog. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| dun | Dusun Deyah | 20,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Southeast, Tabalong River northeast of Bongkang. | Lexical similarity 53% with Lawangan, 52% with Tawoyan. | 20% to 60% of the ethnic group speaks Agta. Used in the home. A few children speak Agta. Neutral language attitude. Speakers also use Tagalog. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| duo | Agta, Dupaninan | 1,200 (1986 SIL). | Northeast Luzon, from below Divilacan Bay in the south to Palaui Island in the north. | Yaga, Tanglagan, Santa Ana-Gonzaga, Barongagunay, Palaui Island, Camonayan, Valley Cove, Bolos Point, Peñablanca, Roso (Southeast Cagayan), Santa Margarita. Yaga and Central Cagayan Agta are 63% intelligible. Lexical similarity 51% between Central Cagayan Agta and Tanglagan, 66% between Yaga and Central Cagayan Agta. | A small sample of speakers of Yaga had 70% comprehension of Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | |
| dup | Duano' | 1,922 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Ethnic population: 2,000 (2000 D. Bradley). | South coast around Pontian Kecil and northwest. | Yaga, Tanglagan, Santa Ana-Gonzaga, Barongagunay, Palaui Island, Camonayan, Valley Cove, Bolos Point, Peñablanca, Roso (Southeast Cagayan), Santa Margarita. Yaga and Central Cagayan Agta are 63% intelligible. Lexical similarity 51% between Central Cagayan Agta and Tanglagan, 66% between Yaga and Central Cagayan Agta. | A small sample of speakers of Yaga had 70% comprehension of Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | |
| duq | Dusun Malang | 4,500 (2003). Population includes 2,000 Bayan. | East central, west of Muarainu, northeast of Muarateweh. | Bayan, Dusun Malang. Closest to Ma'anyan, Paku, Dusun Witu, Malagasy. Lexical similarity 90% between Dusun Malang and Bayan. | A small sample of speakers of Yaga had 70% comprehension of Ilocano. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. | |
| dus | Dumi | 3 (2000 Van Driem). Ethnic population: 1,000 to 2,000 (1991 W. Winter). | Sagarmatha Zone, Northern Khotang District, hills near the middle of the Rawakhola Valley, Baksila, Saptesvara abutting Rava and Tap rivers near the confluence and upriver. | Brasmi, Kharbari, Lamdija, Makpa. Closest to Khaling and Koi. | Speakers are shifting to Nepali. All speakers are older adults. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| duu | Drung | 11,300. 95% monolingual. Population includes 5,816 Drung (1990 census) and 5,500 ethnic Nung in the Nu nationality (1990 J-O Svantesson). About 6,000 in Nu River dialect, about 4,000 in Dulong River dialect. | Dulong River dialect is spoken along both sides of the Dulong River in Gongshan Dulong-Nu Autonomous County in far northwestern Yunnan. Nu River dialect is spoken from Gongshan Dulong-Nu Autonomous County west to Chayu (Zayü) County in Tibet. | Dulong River (Derung River), Nu River. The dialects are reported to be inherently intelligible. The Nu River Drung is not the same as the Tibeto-Burman 'Nung', which are also in Myanmar. Not the same as Rawang in Myanmar. Other possible dialect names are Melam, Metu, Tamalu, Tukiumu. | Vigorous. Speakers of other languages living among them use Drung as second language. All domains. All ages. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Chinese, Burmese, or Lisu. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| duv | Duvle | 933 (2000 WCD). | Lakes Plain area south of Van Daalen River and north of Mulia, Paniai. Eastern dialect along Dagai River, western dialect along Fedide and Wedi rivers. | Eastern Duvle, Western Duvle. Closest to Kaiy. Little difference between dialects. | Vigorous. Wano is the trade language. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| duw | Dusun Witu | 5,000 (2003). | Southeast, regions of Pendang and Buntokecil; south of Muarateweh. | Dusun Pepas, Dusun Witu. Closest to Ma'anyan, Paku, Dusun Malang, Malagasy. Lexical similarity 75% with Ma'anyan, 73% with Paku. | Vigorous. Wano is the trade language. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dux | Duungooma | 70,000 (1991 Vanderaa). | 3rd Region (Sikasso), prefectures of Kadiolo and Sikasso. Kai is the largest town. | Dusun Pepas, Dusun Witu. Closest to Ma'anyan, Paku, Dusun Malang, Malagasy. Lexical similarity 75% with Ma'anyan, 73% with Paku. | Nearly everyone can speak Bambara. Students also speak French. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| duy | Agta, Dicamay | Extinct. | Luzon, Isabela Province, near Jones. | Dusun Pepas, Dusun Witu. Closest to Ma'anyan, Paku, Dusun Malang, Malagasy. Lexical similarity 75% with Ma'anyan, 73% with Paku. | Nearly everyone can speak Bambara. Students also speak French. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dwa | Diri | 7,196 (2000 WCD). | Bauchi State, Ningi and Darazo LGAs. | Dusun Pepas, Dusun Witu. Closest to Ma'anyan, Paku, Dusun Malang, Malagasy. Lexical similarity 75% with Ma'anyan, 73% with Paku. | Nearly everyone can speak Bambara. Students also speak French. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dya | Dyan | 14,100 (1991 Vanderaa). | Bougouriba Province, Dolo, near Diébougou. | Zanga. Zanga is a dialect or closely related language. Not close enough to Lobi to be intelligible. Distinct from Dan (Gio, Yacouba). | Some speakers also use Jula. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dyb | Dyaberdyaber | 3 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Western Australia, coast south of Beagle Bay and inland. | Zanga. Zanga is a dialect or closely related language. Not close enough to Lobi to be intelligible. Distinct from Dan (Gio, Yacouba). | Some speakers also use Jula. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dyd | Dyugun | 2 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Western Australia, coast around Broome and inland. | Zanga. Zanga is a dialect or closely related language. Not close enough to Lobi to be intelligible. Distinct from Dan (Gio, Yacouba). | Some speakers also use Jula. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dyg | Agta, Villa Viciosa | Extinct. | Luzon, Abra Province. | Zanga. Zanga is a dialect or closely related language. Not close enough to Lobi to be intelligible. Distinct from Dan (Gio, Yacouba). | Members of the ethnic group now speak Ilocano. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | Very few can read or write. Roman script. | |
| dyi | Senoufo, Djimini | 95,500 (1993 SIL). | Dabakala Department, northwest corner. | Diamala (Djamala, Dyamala), Djafolo, Dofana, Foolo, Singala. Singala is the prestige dialect of Dabakala. Lexical similarity 76% to 81% with Tagwana. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1993. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. NT: 1993. | |
| dyk | Dayak, Land | 57,619 (1981). | Western Kalimantan. | Karagan (Karangan), Sidin (Siding, Sinding), Meratei (Meretei), Sau (Sauh, Biratak), Sermah (Bionah), Berang, Sabungo, Santan, Gurgo, Sinan, Sumpo, Budanoh, Sering, Gugu, Matan, Temila, Behe, Ipoh, Manyukai (Menjuke, Menyukai, Manyuke, Manukai), Punan (Bunan, Murang Punan, Penyabung Punan, Busang, Djuloi), Kati, Beta. There may be several languages represented among the dialects listed. All Land Dayak in Sarawak are covered by separate listings. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Bible portions: 1935. | Bible portions: 1935. | |
| dyn | Dyangadi | 5 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | New South Wales, Kempsey area, Armidale, Macleay River. | Karagan (Karangan), Sidin (Siding, Sinding), Meratei (Meretei), Sau (Sauh, Biratak), Sermah (Bionah), Berang, Sabungo, Santan, Gurgo, Sinan, Sumpo, Budanoh, Sering, Gugu, Matan, Temila, Behe, Ipoh, Manyukai (Menjuke, Menyukai, Manyuke, Manukai), Punan (Bunan, Murang Punan, Penyabung Punan, Busang, Djuloi), Kati, Beta. There may be several languages represented among the dialects listed. All Land Dayak in Sarawak are covered by separate listings. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Bible portions: 1935. | Bible portions: 1935. | |
| dyy | Dyaabugay | 3 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Queensland, Barron River from south of Mareeba to Kuranda, north to Port Douglas on a plateau. | Njakali (Nyakali, Nyagali), Dyaabugay, Gulay. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| dza | Duguza | 2,000 (1973 SIL). | Bauchi State, Toro LGA; Plateau State, Jos South LGA. | Njakali (Nyakali, Nyagali), Dyaabugay, Gulay. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| dzd | Daza | No estimate available. | Bauchi State, Darazo LGA, a few villages. | Njakali (Nyakali, Nyagali), Dyaabugay, Gulay. | Speakers also use Djoula. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| dzg | Dazaga | 30,000 in Niger (1998 SIL). | Eastern Niger in the south near the Chad border. | Dazaga, Azzaga (Azza, Aza). | Official language. The government plans to develop Dazaga for formal and informal education. Low bilingualism in Arabic. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| dzl | Dzalakha | 15,000 (1993 Van Driem). | Northeastern in Lhüntsi, Kurto District. | Khomakha. | Official language. The government plans to develop Dazaga for formal and informal education. Low bilingualism in Arabic. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| dzo | Dzongkha | 9 in Nepal (2001 census). | Some in Kathmandu. | Wang-The (Thimphu-Punakha), Ha, Northern Thimphu. As different from Lhasa Tibetan as Nepali is from Hindi. Partially intelligible with Sikkimese (Drenjoke). Names listed as dialects may be separate languages. Lexical similarity 48% with Sharchagpakha, 47% to 52% with Kebumtamp, 77% with Adap. | Official language. | Literacy rate in first language: 54%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Common school language. Uchen script. Grammar. Bible portions: 1970. | Literacy rate in first language: 54%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. Common school language. Uchen script. Grammar. Bible portions: 1970. | |
| ebr | Ebrié | 75,859 (1988 census). | Abidjan Department, urban Abidjan, the Subprefecture of Dabou, and the Subprefecture of Bingerville. 57 villages, including 27 in Abidjan. | Low lexical similarity and structurally different from surrounding languages. | More use of French than other groups because of their proximity to the capital. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | |
| ecs | Ecuadorian Sign Language | 188,000 (1986 Gallaudet Univ.). | Abidjan Department, urban Abidjan, the Subprefecture of Dabou, and the Subprefecture of Bingerville. 57 villages, including 27 in Abidjan. | Slight regional variants in sign languages. Some influences from USA Peace Corps, others from people educated in Spain or Argentina. | Some deaf schools use total communication; speaking and signing. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | |
| eee | E | 30,000 (1992 Edmondson). | Northern Guangxi-Zhuang Autonomous Region, Rongshui Hmong Autonomous County, Yongle Township, and neighboring border areas of Luocheng Mulam Autonomous County. Yongle and nineteen surrounding villages. | Slight regional variants in sign languages. Some influences from USA Peace Corps, others from people educated in Spain or Argentina. | Chinese is the second language (especially the Tuguai Hua variety of Cantonese) or Yue. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | |
| efe | Efe | 20,000 (1991 SIL). | Orientale Province, Mambasa, Watsa, Irumu, and Djugu territories. | Related to Lese. | Chinese is the second language (especially the Tuguai Hua variety of Cantonese) or Yue. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | |
| ega | Ega | 2,500 (2001 Connell). | Southern Department, Diés Canton, Borondoukou village near Gly. | Related to Lese. | More vigorous than was previously thought (R. Blench 2001). The ethnic group is growing, but some are shifting to the Dida language because of intermarriage and other influences. Some count themselves as ethnic Dida in the census. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Radio programs. NT: 1998. | |
| ego | Eggon | 140,368 (1990). | Nasarawa State, Nasarawa Eggon, Akwanga, Lafia, Awe, and Obi LGAs. | 25 dialects are locally recognized, but their status is unclear. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | |
| ehu | Ehueun | 14,244 (2000 WCD). | Ondo State, Akoko South LGA. | Related to Ukue. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | |
| eip | Eipomek | 3,000 (1987 SIL). | Eastern highlands area, Eipo River, east of Nalca. | Lexical similarity 75% with Una. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | |
| eit | Eitiep | 501 (2003 SIL). | East Sepik Province, southwest of Kombio, and partially in Sandaun Province, across Bongos River. | Close to Kombio. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | |
| eiv | Askopan | 1,200 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Mountains of south central Bougainville Province. | Close to Kunua. | Speakers also use Hausa. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | Dictionary. NT: 1974. | |
| eka | Ekajuk | 30,000 (1986 Asinya). | Cross River State, Ogoja LGA, Bansara, Nwang, Ntara 1, 2, and 3, and Ebanibim towns. | Close to Kunua. | Speakers also use Hausa. | NT: 1971. | NT: 1971. | |
| ekg | Ekari | 100,000 (1985 Doble). | West central highlands, Paniai. | Simori, Yabi (Jabi), Mapiya-Kegata, Mee. Closest to Wolani. Slight dialect difference with Mapiya-Kegata. | Bilingual level estimates for Indonesian: 0 10%, 1 40%, 2 20%, 3 15%, 4 10%, 5 5%. | NT: 1963–1985. | NT: 1963–1985. | |
| eki | Eki | 5,000 (1988, in Crozier and Blench 1992:36). | Cross River State, northeast of Efik, south of Idere. | Listed separately in Crozier and Blench 1992. Probably Central Lower Cross, related to Anaang. Close to Idere (B. Connell 1998). | Bilingual level estimates for Indonesian: 0 10%, 1 40%, 2 20%, 3 15%, 4 10%, 5 5%. | NT: 1963–1985. | NT: 1963–1985. | |
| ekm | Elip | 6,400 (1982 SIL). | Center Province, Mbam Division, Elip canton, southeast of Bokito towards the Mbam and Sanaga rivers, in Yambasa. | It may be possible to standardize a written form with Mmaala and Yangben, related languages. | People do not think French will replace Elip. French is the language of instruction in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in some churches, without interpretation. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmala and Yangben in early adulthood. | NT: 1963–1985. | NT: 1963–1985. | |
| ekp | Ekpeye | 30,000 (1973 SIL). | Rivers State, Ahoada East and Ahoada West LGAs. | Ako, Upata, Ubye, Igbuduya. Related to Igbo. | People do not think French will replace Elip. French is the language of instruction in primary and secondary education. Ewondo or Bulu are used in some churches, without interpretation. Speakers acquire comprehension of Mmala and Yangben in early adulthood. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| ekr | Yace | 50,000 (2002). | Cross River State, Yala Local Government Area, Osina, Imbuor, Aliforkpa (Ewor), Wonyer, Maa (formerly Ijiegu). | Alifokpa, Ijiegu. Lexical similarity 84% with Akpa. | Speakers also use Yala, Bekwarra, Tiv, or Igede. | Bible portions: 1980. | Bible portions: 1980. | |
| eky | Kayah, Eastern | 98,642 in Thailand (2000 WCD). | Maehongson Province, east of the Salween River. | Distinct from but related to Bwe Karen (Bghai), forming a dialect cluster. Speakers have difficulty understanding Western Kayah of Myanmar. | They have a strong ethnic feeling that all Kayah are the same ethnic group. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% in Thai. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% in Thai. | |
| ele | Elepi | 327 (2003 SIL). | East Sepik Province, coast around Samap. | Distinct from but related to Bwe Karen (Bghai), forming a dialect cluster. Speakers have difficulty understanding Western Kayah of Myanmar. | They have a strong ethnic feeling that all Kayah are the same ethnic group. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | |
| elh | El Hugeirat | 200 (2000 Brenzinger). | Northern Sudan, West Kordofan on El Hugeirat Hills. | Distinct from but related to Bwe Karen (Bghai), forming a dialect cluster. Speakers have difficulty understanding Western Kayah of Myanmar. | They have a strong ethnic feeling that all Kayah are the same ethnic group. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | |
| eli | Nding | 400 (1971 Welmers). | Northern Sudan, southern Eliri range. | Lexical similarity 70% with closest Talodi languages. | They have a strong ethnic feeling that all Kayah are the same ethnic group. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | |
| elk | Elkei | 1,642 (2000 census). | Sandaun Province. | At least 3 dialects. | They have a strong ethnic feeling that all Kayah are the same ethnic group. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. | |
| ell | Greek | 7,205 in Ukraine (1970 census). Ethnic population: 106,909. | Donetsk oblast, town of Mariupol, 18 villages. | Mariupol Greek (Tavro-Rumeic, Crimeo-Rumeic). | Most ethnic Greeks speak Russian as first language. Some speak Urum (Podolsky). | Cyrillic script in Ukraine. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1840–1994. | Cyrillic script in Ukraine. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1840–1994. | |
| elm | Eleme | 58,000 (1990 UBS). | Rivers State, Eleme LGA. | Mariupol Greek (Tavro-Rumeic, Crimeo-Rumeic). | Most ethnic Greeks speak Russian as first language. Some speak Urum (Podolsky). | Grammar. Bible portions: 1988. | Grammar. Bible portions: 1988. | |
| elo | El Molo | 8 (1994 Larsen). Ethnic population: 400 (2000 M. Brenzinger). | Southeastern shore of Lake Turkana, Elmolo Bay, Marsabit District, Eastern Province. | The original language is close to Daasanach. | May be extinct. All speakers older than 50 years (1994). Most of the ethnic group now speak Samburu. They are affiliated with the Samburu. | Grammar. Bible portions: 1988. | Grammar. Bible portions: 1988. | |
| ema | Emai-Iuleha-Ora | 100,000 (1987 Schaefer). | Edo State, Owan LGA. | Ivhimion, Emai, Iuleha, Ora. Dialect cluster. | Ora is used in initial primary education. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1908–1910. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1908–1910. | |
| emb | Embaloh | 10,000 (1991 NTM). | West central, Hulu Kapuas Regency, just south of the Sarawak border, upper Kapuas River: Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau, Mandai, and Kalis tributaries. | Kalis (Kalis Maloh, Kalis Dayak). Kalis may be a separate language. | Ora is used in initial primary education. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| eme | Emerillon | 400 (2001). | Southern border area, Ouaqui, Camopi and Oiapoque rivers. None in Brazil. | Probably not intelligible with Wayampi. | Ora is used in initial primary education. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| emg | Meohang, Eastern | No estimate available. | Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasawa District, upper Arun Valley east of the river, eastern Nepal. One dialect is in Sunsari District, Bhaludhunga, Bishnupaduka Panchayat; Dibum (Dibung) in Mangtewa Panchayat, Mulgaon-Wangtang in Yaphu Panchayat. | Sunsari, Dibum, Mulgaon-Wangtang. Structurally different from Western Meohang. | May be extinct or nearly extinct, being replaced by Nepali. | NT: 1998. | NT: 1998. | |
| emi | Mussau-Emira | 5,000 (2003 SIL). Ethnic population: 5,000, including 3,500 who are resident in the traditional area (2000 J. Brownie SIL). | New Ireland Province, St. Matthias Islands (Mussau and Emira), 150 km northwest of Kavieng. About 30% of the people live outside the language area, the majority in Kavieng. Some in Port Moresby, Lae, Goroka, Madang. | Emira, Western Mussau, Southern Mussau, Eastern Mussau. | Vigorous. Nearly all of the ethnic group speaks Mussau-Emira. Parents pass it on to children in the traditional area, and some elsewhere, except in mixed marriages. The Tenis ethnic group use this as second language. Most domains, local administration, commerce, teaching medium in early grades, oral and some written use in church, personal letters. Positive language attitude. All but the youngest children speak Tok Pisin. All have varying fluency in English. | Literacy rate in first language: 80% to 95%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 95%. Vernacular prep schools since 1994. Dictionary. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: 80% to 95%. Literacy rate in second language: 80% to 95%. Vernacular prep schools since 1994. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| eml | Emiliano-Romagnolo | 20,112 in San Marino (1993). | Northwest Italy, region of Piacenza to that of Ravenna, and between the Po and the Adriatic and the Apennines, in the territories of Emilia and Romagna, southern Pianura Padana (all provinces), southern Lombardia (Provinces Mantova and Pavia), northern Toscana (Lunigiana), northern Marche (Province Pesaro). Also spoken in San Marino. | Sammarinese. | Few children speakers. Speakers are shifting to Italian. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | |
| emn | Eman | 800 (1990 SIL). | South West Province, Manyu Division, Akwaya Subdivision, towns of Amayo, Amanavil, Akalabo, and Akalam Gomo. No permanent settlements in Nigeria. | Amayo, Amanavil (Aman, Amana, Amani, Elaka). Lexical similarity 70% with Caka, 60% with Ipulo, 40% with Iceve-Maci and Otank, 35% with Esimbi, 30% with Mesaka. Amayo and Amanavil have 80% lexical similarity. | Speakers have high bilingualism in Ipulo. Cameroon Pidgin is also used. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | |
| emo | Emok | Extinct. Ethnic population: 630 (1981 census). | Near Asunción. Eastern Chaco. | Amayo, Amanavil (Aman, Amana, Amani, Elaka). Lexical similarity 70% with Caka, 60% with Ipulo, 40% with Iceve-Maci and Otank, 35% with Esimbi, 30% with Mesaka. Amayo and Amanavil have 80% lexical similarity. | Speakers have high bilingualism in Ipulo. Cameroon Pidgin is also used. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | Literacy rate in second language: 100%. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1862–1995. | |
| emp | Emberá, Northern | 13,000 in Colombia (1988 Aguirre and Pardo-Rojas). | Atrato River basin in Chocó Department, Pacific coastal rivers from Cabo Corrientes, to Antioquia (Rio Verde) Department. | Related languages in order of closeness: Emberá-Catío, Emberá-Baudó, Emberá-Tadó, Epena, Emberá-Chamí, and Wounmeu. Panama and Colombia dialects are inherently intelligible. Northern Embera of the Upper Baudó area and downriver Emberá-Baudó are inherently intelligible. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 40%, 1 32%, 2 25%, 3 2.5%, 4 .5%, 5 0%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | |
| ems | Yupik, Pacific Gulf | 400 (1995 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 3,000 (1995 M. Krauss). | Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island (Koniag dialect), Alaskan coast from Cook Inlet to Prince William Sound (Chugach dialect). 20 villages. | Chugach, Koniag. | Most speakers are older adults. The youngest are in the late 20s at the tip of the Kenai Peninsula and the 50s or 60s on Kodiak Island. Speakers also use English. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1848. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1848. | |
| emu | Muria, Eastern | 10,089 (2000 WCD). | Chhattisgarh, Northeastern Bastar District; Orissa, northwestern Koraput District. | Raigarh, Lanjoda. 95% intelligibility between dialects; 73% to 83% of Western Muria; 19% to 34% of Northern Gondi; 35% of Dandami Maria. | All domains. All ages. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1848. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1848. | |
| emw | Emplawas | 250 (1989 SIL). | Emplawas village, southwest Babar Island, south Maluku. | Raigarh, Lanjoda. 95% intelligibility between dialects; 73% to 83% of Western Muria; 19% to 34% of Northern Gondi; 35% of Dandami Maria. | All domains. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| ena | Apali | 985 (2003 SIL). | Madang Province, upper Ramu River area, Aiome District. | Aki, Aci. | All domains. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Bible portions: 1993. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Bible portions: 1993. | |
| enb | Endo | 80,000 (1997 SIL). | Rift Valley Province, Elgeyo Marakwet District. | Endo, Sambirir. Low intelligibility with major Kalenjin dialects and Talai. | All domains. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | |
| enc | En | 200 (1998 Edmondson). | Cao Bang Province, Noi Thon village, about 20 km directly east on foot from Ho Quang City, Ho Quang District. | Lexical similarity less than 50% with Laha, Qabiao (Laqua), Lachi, Gelao, Buyang, Hlai. | All domains. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | |
| end | Ende | 87,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population includes 78,000 Ende, 9,000 Nga'o. | South central Flores, west of Sikka, Lesser Sundas. | Ende (Endeh, Ja'o, Djau), Nga'o (Ngao, West Ende). Dialect cluster. Li'o is on the border between a separate language or dialect of Ende. | All domains. All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1998–2000. | |
| enf | Enets, Forest | 40 (1995 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 209 with Tundra Enets (1989 census). | Taimyr National Okrug. Along the Yenisei River's lower course, upstream from Dudinka. The Forest variety is in the Potapovo settlement of the Dudinka Region. | Forest and Tundra Enets are barely intelligible to each other's speakers. It is transitional between Yura and Nganasan. For a time it was officially considered part of Nenets. | Under 10% of the ethnic group speaks Enets. Used in the home. All speakers older than 40 years. About half of the ethnic middle aged speak Enets, but no children or adolescents. People are neutral to mildly supportive towards Enets. All speakers are bilingual or trilingual. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| eng | English | 375,490 in Zimbabwe (1969 census). | More use on Saba and Statia than other islands. | Black English. | Official language. Spoken by most Europeans and an increasing number of Africans. Used in all or most education. | Taught in primary schools. Used as medium of instruction in secondary schools and universities. | Taught in primary schools. Used as medium of instruction in secondary schools and universities. | |
| enh | Enets, Tundra | 30 (1995 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 209 together with Forest Enets (1990 census). | Taimyr National Okrug. Along the Yenisei River's lower course, upstream from Dudinka. 'Tundra' in the Vorontzovo settlement of the Ust-Yenisei Region. | Tundra and Forest Enets barely intelligible to each other's speakers. It is transitional between Yura and Nganasan. For a time it was officially considered part of Nenets. | Under 10% of the ethnic groups speaks Enets. Used in the home. All speakers older than 40 years. About half of the ethnic middle aged speak Enets, but no children or adolescents. Neutral language attitude. All speakers are bilingual or trilingual. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| eni | Enim | 70,000 (1989). | Southern Sumatra, south of Muaraenim, east and southeast of Lahat. | Tundra and Forest Enets barely intelligible to each other's speakers. It is transitional between Yura and Nganasan. For a time it was officially considered part of Nenets. | Under 10% of the ethnic groups speaks Enets. Used in the home. All speakers older than 40 years. About half of the ethnic middle aged speak Enets, but no children or adolescents. Neutral language attitude. All speakers are bilingual or trilingual. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | Taught in school. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| enn | Engenni | 20,000 (1980 UBS). | Rivers State, Ahoada West LGA; Bayelsa State, Yenagoa LGA. | Ediro, Inedua, Ogua, Zarama. | Under 10% of the ethnic groups speaks Enets. Used in the home. All speakers older than 40 years. About half of the ethnic middle aged speak Enets, but no children or adolescents. Neutral language attitude. All speakers are bilingual or trilingual. | Grammar. NT: 1977. | Grammar. NT: 1977. | |
| eno | Enggano | 700 (2000 Wurm). | Enggano Island, southwest of Sumatra and on four smaller nearby islands. | Not closely related to other languages. | Under 10% of the ethnic groups speaks Enets. Used in the home. All speakers older than 40 years. About half of the ethnic middle aged speak Enets, but no children or adolescents. Neutral language attitude. All speakers are bilingual or trilingual. | Grammar. NT: 1977. | Grammar. NT: 1977. | |
| enq | Enga | 164,750 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population includes 12,000 in Sau (1990 UBS). | Enga Province. The Maramuni are nomadic, and are in the lower reaches of the central range. | Kandepe, Layapo, Tayato, Mae (Mai, Wabag), Maramuni (Malamuni), Kaina, Kapona, Sau (Sau Enga, Wapi), Yandapo, Lapalama 1, Lapalama 2, Laiagam, Sari. Mae is the standard dialect; all understand it. Layapo is between Mae and Kyaka. | Trade language. | Dictionary. NT: 1979–1988. | Dictionary. NT: 1979–1988. | |
| enr | Emumu | 1,100 (1987 SIL). | Border area south of Jayapura, 11 villages. | Kandepe, Layapo, Tayato, Mae (Mai, Wabag), Maramuni (Malamuni), Kaina, Kapona, Sau (Sau Enga, Wapi), Yandapo, Lapalama 1, Lapalama 2, Laiagam, Sari. Mae is the standard dialect; all understand it. Layapo is between Mae and Kyaka. | Trade language. | Dictionary. NT: 1979–1988. | Dictionary. NT: 1979–1988. |
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