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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cnl | Chinantec, Lalana | 10,500 (1998). 2,500 monolinguals. | Oaxaca-Veracruz border, 25 towns. | 87% intelligibility of Tepinapa (closest, but lower in outlying areas), 43% of Ozumacín, 24% of Lealao. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 29%, 2 10%, 3 10%, 4 1%, 5 0%. | NT: 1974–1994. | NT: 1974–1994. | |
| cnm | Chuj, Ixtatán | 9,500 in Mexico (1991 Schumann). Population includes 8,000 refugees. | Municipio of Trinitaria, Chiapas; villages of Tziscau and Cuauhtémoc. | 87% intelligibility of Tepinapa (closest, but lower in outlying areas), 43% of Ozumacín, 24% of Lealao. | The Mexican group is reported to be bilingual in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. NT: 1970–1994. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. NT: 1970–1994. | |
| cno | Con | 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). | Luang Namtha Province, southwest of Vieng Pou Kha. | 87% intelligibility of Tepinapa (closest, but lower in outlying areas), 43% of Ozumacín, 24% of Lealao. | The Mexican group is reported to be bilingual in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. NT: 1970–1994. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 40%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. NT: 1970–1994. | |
| cns | Asmat, Central | 7,000 (1972 Roesler TEAM). | On the south coast from the Owap River in the northwest to the Farec River in the southwest, inland toward the foothills to 210 kilometers from the coast in some areas. Merauke Kabupaten, Sawa-Erma, Agats, Atsy, and Pantai Kasuari kecamatans. Between the Kamoro and Sawi languages. | Simai (Simay), Misman, Ajam (Ayam). North Asmat is the most distinct dialect. Related to the Sempan language north of the rivers. Close to Kamoro and Citak. | Many are becoming bilingual in Indonesian; some in neighboring languages. | NT: 1985. | NT: 1985. | |
| cnt | Chinantec, Tepetotutla | 2,000 (1990 census). | North Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Tepetotutla, San Antonio del Barrio, San Pedro Tlatepusco, Santo Tomás Texas, Vega del Sol, El Naranjal. | 60% intelligibility of Quiotepec, 59% of Palantla, 48% of Yolox. | Many are becoming bilingual in Indonesian; some in neighboring languages. | Grammar. NT: 1994. | Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| cnu | Chenoua | 4,764 (2000 WCD). | Towns are Cherchell, Hamadia, Gouraya, Damous, Oued Damous, Larhat, Marceau, Sidi Amar, Nador, Tipaza, Sidi Mousa, Ain Tagourirt. | Lexical similarity 77% with Tachawit, 76% with Kabyle. | Men and young people use Algerian Spoken Arabic as second language. | Grammar. NT: 1994. | Grammar. NT: 1994. | |
| cnw | Chin, Ngawn | 15,000 (1984). | Chin Hills, Falam area. | Lexical similarity 77% with Tachawit, 76% with Kabyle. | Men and young people use Algerian Spoken Arabic as second language. | Bible portions: 1951. | Bible portions: 1951. | |
| coa | Malay, Cocos Islands | 1,000 in Australia. Population includes 495 in Cocos Islands (1987), 558 on Christmas Island (1987). | Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Christmas Island. | Lexical similarity 77% with Tachawit, 76% with Kabyle. | Vigorous. Young people also use English, but as the age increases the knowledge of English decreases. | Bible portions: 1951. | Bible portions: 1951. | |
| cob | Chicomuceltec | Extinct. Ethnic population: 100 in Guatemala (1982 GR). | Chiapas, towns of Mazapa de Madero, Amatenango, and Chicomuselo. Also spoken in Guatemala. | Lexical similarity 77% with Tachawit, 76% with Kabyle. | Members of the ethnic group now speak Spanish. | Bible portions: 1951. | Bible portions: 1951. | |
| coc | Cocopa | 150 in the USA (1994 L. Hinton). 6 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 321 in the USA (1990). | Lower Colorado River south of Yuma, Arizona. The majority live in Baja California, Mexico. | Lexical similarity 77% with Tachawit, 76% with Kabyle. | Passed on to some children. Course on Cocopa taught at nearby college. | Bible portions: 1972. | Bible portions: 1972. | |
| cod | Cocama-Cocamilla | Ethnic population: 20 in Colombia. | Lower Putumayo. | Cocama, Cocamilla (Kokamilla). | Speakers in Colombia are trilingual in Spanish, Portuguese, and Cocama. | Literacy rate in first language: 3%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1961–1967. | Literacy rate in first language: 3%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Grammar. Bible portions: 1961–1967. | |
| coe | Koreguaje | 2,000 (1995 SIL). | Orteguaza and Caquetá rivers and tributaries, Caquetá Region. | Cocama, Cocamilla (Kokamilla). | Members of the Tama ethnic group now speak Koreguaje. 90% use Spanish as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 40%. NT: 1991. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 40%. NT: 1991. | |
| cof | Colorado | 2,300 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 2,300 (2000 SIL). | Northwestern jungle west of Quito, around Santo Domingo de los Colorados. | Cocama, Cocamilla (Kokamilla). | All are bilingual. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | |
| cog | Chong | 500 in Thailand. | Chantaburi, four villages, Trat Province, northwest of Par. | Somray in Cambodia is a separate but related language. | All are bilingual. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | |
| coj | Cochimi | Extinct. | Baja California Norte, north of Loreto to the northern part of the peninsula. | Troike (1970) regards it as two distinct languages. Kumiai (Tipai) in La Huerta now call themselves 'Cochimí'. | Old Cochimí is extinct (Mixco 1978). | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1980–1990. | |
| cok | Cora, Santa Teresa | 7,000 (1993 SIL). | North central Nayarit, Santa Teresa, Dolores, San Blasito. | Santa Teresa Cora, Dolores Cora, San Blasito Cora, San Juan Corapan Cora, Rosarito Cora. Difficult intelligibility of other Cora varieties. | Old Cochimí is extinct (Mixco 1978). | Bible portions: 2000. | Bible portions: 2000. | |
| col | Columbia-Wenatchi | 75 (1990 M. D. Kinkade). Population includes 39 Columbia speakers (1990 census). Ethnic population: 500 possibly (1977 SIL). | North central Washington, Colville Reservation. | Columbia (Sinkiuse, Columbian), Wenatchi (Wenatchee, Entiat, Chelan). | All speakers are older adults. | Bible portions: 2000. | Bible portions: 2000. | |
| com | Comanche | 200 (2000). Ethnic population: 10,000 (2000). | Western Oklahoma. | Close to Shoshoni, Panamint. | Speakers are shifting to English. Most or all speakers are older adults (1998). | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1958. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1958. | |
| con | Cofán | 600 in Colombia (2000 SIL). Many monolinguals. Ethnic population: 600 to 700 in Colombia (2000 Borman). | Colombia-Ecuador border area, Putumayo Province. | Aguarico, Santa Rosa. | Some children not learning Cofán. | Literacy rate in first language: 60%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1980–2002. | Literacy rate in first language: 60%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1980–2002. | |
| coo | Comox | 400. Population includes 1 speaker of Island Comox, fewer than 400 of Sliammon (mainland) (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Ethnic population: 850 (1983). | British Columbia, Vancouver Island, and the coast north of Powell River. | Island Comox, Sliammon. Speakers all speak the Sliammon (mainland) dialect. No speakers of Island Comox left. | All speakers are older adults. Speakers are highly bilingual in English. Some members of the ethnic group speak English as first language. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| cop | Coptic | Extinct. | British Columbia, Vancouver Island, and the coast north of Powell River. | Bohairic, Sahidic. | Liturgical language of the Coptic Church, Bohairic dialect. No first-language speakers; it probably became extinct in the 16th century. | NT: 1716–1924. | NT: 1716–1924. | |
| coq | Coquille | Extinct. | Southwestern Oregon, formerly on upper Coquille River. | Bohairic, Sahidic. | Liturgical language of the Coptic Church, Bohairic dialect. No first-language speakers; it probably became extinct in the 16th century. | NT: 1716–1924. | NT: 1716–1924. | |
| cor | Cornish | A number of people under 20 years of age are first-language speakers. There are 500 speakers who use Cornish, and about 100 others who speak it fluently (2003). Ethnic population: 468,425 (1991 census). | Duchy of Cornwall, southwest England. A few in Canada and Australia. | Related to Breton, Welsh, Gaulish (extinct), Irish Gaelic, Manx Gaelic, Scots Gaelic. | Religious services are still held in Cornish. There are evening classes, correspondence courses, summer camps, children's play groups. There is a Cornish Language Board. It became extinct as a first language in 1777, but is being revived. Some children grow up bilingual in English. | Taught in some schools. NT: 2000. | Taught in some schools. NT: 2000. | |
| cos | Corsican | 1,000 in Italy (1990). | Maddalena Island, northeast coast of Sardinia. | Sartenais, Vico-Ajaccio, Northern Corsican (Cape Cors, Bastia), Venaco. Corsican is in the Tuscan group of Italian varieties. Southern Corsican is closer to Northern Sardinian or Gallurese than other Corsican dialects (R. A. Hall, Jr.). Lexical similarity 79% to 89% among dialects of Bastia, Venaco, Vico, and Sartene. Bonifacio on the southern tip of the island has 78% lexical similarity (highest) with Bastia at extreme north. Ajaccio dialect is central and prestigious. | Vigorous. Corsican has been recognized as a language by the French government. All ages. Speakers also use French but many are not fluent in it. There is a movement for bilingual education. | Bible portions: 1861–1994. | Bible portions: 1861–1994. | |
| cot | Caquinte | 300 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 300. | Poyeni, Mayapo, and Picha rivers. Along the upper Poyeni River, which flows into the Tambo; along the Yori and Agueni rivers which become the Mipaya River flowing into the Urubamba. A few speakers also live on the Sensa and Vitiricaya rivers, affluents of the Urubamba. | Closest to Asháninka. | Official language. Vigorous. Oral and written Caquinte is used in religious services. The language is mostly spoken in the local community. Letters are sometimes exchanged between Caquinte villages. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Machiguenga: 0 85%, 1 5%, 2 8%, 3 2%, 4 0%, 5 0%. Almost none can converse in Spanish. Some use Asháninka as second language. Some are borrowing words from Asháninka or Machiguenga. | Literacy rate in first language: 33%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. 100 people can read and write Caquinte. Oral and written in primary school. Roman script. Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1991. | Literacy rate in first language: 33%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. 100 people can read and write Caquinte. Oral and written in primary school. Roman script. Grammar. Bible portions: 1984–1991. | |
| cou | Wamey | 5,270 in Guinea (2001 Pruett). | Koundara Region and around Youkounkoun, extending to the Senegal border. | Closest to Asháninka. | Official language. Vigorous. Oral and written Caquinte is used in religious services. The language is mostly spoken in the local community. Letters are sometimes exchanged between Caquinte villages. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Machiguenga: 0 85%, 1 5%, 2 8%, 3 2%, 4 0%, 5 0%. Almost none can converse in Spanish. Some use Asháninka as second language. Some are borrowing words from Asháninka or Machiguenga. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| cov | Cao Miao | 63,632 (2000 WCD). | Liping county of southeastern Guizhou Province, Tongdao Dong Autonomous County of southwestern Hunan Province, and Sanjiang Dong Autonomous County of northeastern Guangxi, near Southern Dong, in small villages. | Close to Northern Dong and sometimes referred to as a special dialect of Dong. | Used in daily communication. Speakers also use Mandarin. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| cow | Cowlitz | Extinct. Ethnic population: 200 (1990 M. D. Kinkade). | Southwestern Washington. | Close to Northern Dong and sometimes referred to as a special dialect of Dong. | Used in daily communication. Speakers also use Mandarin. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| cox | Nanti | 350 to 600 (2002 Michael). | Headwaters of the Camisea and Timpia rivers. | Language is most closely related to Machiguenga, but they have remained separate. | Official language. Speakers also use Spanish or Machiguenga. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| coy | Coyaima | Extinct. | Tolima Region. | Ruhlen says it was a Yukpa variety. | The tribe still exists as an entity, but has not spoken the language for several generations. Spanish is now spoken. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| coz | Chochotec | 770 (1998). | Oaxaca, Nochixtlán District, Santa María Nativitas (428 out of 764 population), San Juan Bautista Coixtlahuaca (272 out of 3,111 population), San Martín Toxpalán (207 out of 2,462 population), San Miguel Tulancingo (72 out of 553 population). | Ruhlen says it was a Yukpa variety. | Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 0.5%. Literacy rate in second language: 0%. Bible portions: 2000. | |
| cpa | Chinantec, Palantla | 12,000 (1990 census). 1,500 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, San Juan Palantla plus 13 towns. | 78% intelligibility of Tepetotutla (closest), 72% of Valle Nacional, 69% of Usila, 54% of Ozumacín. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 10%, 1 25%, 2 35%, 3 25%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Dictionary. NT: 1973. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Dictionary. NT: 1973. | |
| cpb | Ashéninka, Ucayali-Yurúa | 212 to 235 in Brazil (1983 SIL). | Acre. | Somewhat intelligible with other varieties of Ashéninka. | Official language. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 20%, 1 30%, 2 25%, 3 15%, 4 5%, 5 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | |
| cpc | Ajyíninka Apurucayali | 4,000 (2000 SIL). | Apurucayali tributary of the Pachitea River. | Not intelligible with other varieties of Ashéninka. | Official language. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 20%, 1 40%, 2 30%, 3 10%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 30%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | |
| cpg | Cappadocian Greek | Extinct. | Resettled to various locations in Greece in 1922. Formerly in central Turkey (Cappadocia). The Sille dialect was in Sille town near Konya, Western Cappadocian was in villages south of Kayseri, Pharasa was in Pharasa (Faràs) and surrounding villages. | Sille, Western Cappadocian, Pharasa. Closest to Pontic. Even more distinct from Standard Greek than Pontic is. | Language was under extensive attrition from Turkish at the time of the population exchanges in 1922, and has now died out since the 1960s under pressure from Standard Greek (N. Nicholas 1997, Costakis). | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cpi | Chinese Pidgin English | No estimate available. | Resettled to various locations in Greece in 1922. Formerly in central Turkey (Cappadocia). The Sille dialect was in Sille town near Konya, Western Cappadocian was in villages south of Kayseri, Pharasa was in Pharasa (Faràs) and surrounding villages. | Sille, Western Cappadocian, Pharasa. Closest to Pontic. Even more distinct from Standard Greek than Pontic is. | Language was under extensive attrition from Turkish at the time of the population exchanges in 1922, and has now died out since the 1960s under pressure from Standard Greek (N. Nicholas 1997, Costakis). | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cps | Capiznon | 638,653 (2000). | Northeast Panay. | Sille, Western Cappadocian, Pharasa. Closest to Pontic. Even more distinct from Standard Greek than Pontic is. | A population sample had 91% comprehension of Hiligaynon narrative. Tagalog is also used. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cpu | Ashéninka, Pichis | 12,000 (2001 SIL). | Pichis and its tributaries except Apurucayali. | Somewhat intelligible with other varieties of Ashéninka. | Official language. 35% of speakers have routine proficiency in Spanish. 15% have higher than routine proficiency. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| cpx | Chinese, Pu-Xian | 14,083 in Singapore (2000 WCD). | Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak. | Henghua (Hinghua, Xinghua). | Speakers are adequately bilingual in Standard Chinese. | Highly literate in Chinese, and they use that literature. Bible: 1912. | Highly literate in Chinese, and they use that literature. Bible: 1912. | |
| cpy | Ashéninka, South Ucayali | 13,000 (2002 SIL). Ethnic population: 14,000 (2002 SIL). | Upper Ucayali River and tributaries (Southernmost part of Ucayali Department). | Most closely related to Pajanol Ashéninka. | Official language. Speakers also use Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Bible portions: 1976–1986. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Bible portions: 1976–1986. | |
| cqu | Quechua, Chilean | Ethnic population: 4,563 (2000 WCD). | Northern second region. | May be intelligible with, or the same as, South Bolivian Quechua. | There may be no Quechua speakers in Chile. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Bible portions: 1976–1986. | Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 35%. Bible portions: 1976–1986. | |
| cra | Chara | 6,932. 5,556 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 6,984 (1998 census). | Central Kafa Region, just north of the Omo River. | Lexical similarity 54% with Wolaytta. | 668 second-language speakers. All domains. Some also use Wolaytta to the east or Kafa to the west. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | |
| crb | Carib, Island | Extinct. | Formerly also in Dominica. | Vincentian. | Became extinct in Dominica and Saint Vincent about 1920. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | |
| crd | Coeur d'Alene | 5 (1999 R. McDonald). Ethnic population: 800 (1977 SIL). | Northern Idaho, Coeur d'Alene Reservation. | Vincentian. | There are language lessons in the school curriculum for children and classes for adults. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | |
| crf | Caramanta | Extinct. | Near city of Andes, Christiania, Municipio de Jardín, Antioquía region. | Vincentian. | There are language lessons in the school curriculum for children and classes for adults. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | Literacy rate in second language: 0.8%. | |
| crg | Michif | 600 in Canada (1998). | Scattered locations in Canada. | Closest to Plains Cree. Several varieties in Canada. | Most or all speakers are older adults. Speakers also use English. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| crh | Crimean Turkish | 21,482 in Romania (2002 census). | It is not known how many still speak it in Turkey, though there are definitely some Crimean Tatar villages, such as Karakuyu in Polatli District of Ankara Province. | Northern Crimean (Crimean Nogai, Steppe Crimean), Central Crimean, Southern Crimean. | Most or all speakers are older adults. Speakers also use English. | Cyrillic script. NT: 1666–1825. | Cyrillic script. NT: 1666–1825. | |
| cri | Sãotomense | 69,899 (1999 S. Graham). | São Tomense is spoken on São Tomé Island, all but the southern tip. | The substratum was largely Kwa and Western Bantu languages; quite distinct from the creoles of Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Gambia, and Cape Verde. Lexical similarity 77% with Principense, 62% with Fa D'Ambu (Annobonese), 70% with Angolar. | National language on São Tomé Island. The language of social identity in most São Tomé social networks for age 30 and above. The Angolares are a distinct ethnolinguistic group from the Forros ('freedmen'), Sãotomense speakers also on São Tomé Island. Most Angolares speak Sãotomense also, and are tending to be absorbed into the Forros. Most speak Portuguese. Some older adult women may not understand Portuguese adequately. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% Portuguese. | Literacy rate in second language: 50% Portuguese. | |
| crj | East Cree, Southern | 7,306 (1997 Quebec Ministere de la Sante et des Services Sociaux). | Quebec, southeastward from James Bay, inland to the height of land (watershed) east of Lake Mistissini. Coastal communities of Waskaganish, some speakers in Eastmain. Inland, in Mistissini, Waswanipi, Nemaska, and Ouje-Bougoumo. | Palatalized y-dialect within Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi language complex or dialect cluster. Sometimes classified as Montagnais. | Vigorous. All domains. Speakers also use English. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Language of instruction in lower grades, taught as a subject in upper grades. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2001. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Language of instruction in lower grades, taught as a subject in upper grades. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2001. | |
| crk | Cree, Plains | 100 in the USA (2001 I. Goddard). | North central Montana, Rocky Boy Reservation. | Plains Cree, Western York Cree, Northern Alberta Cree. Nonpalatalized y-dialect within Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi language complex or dialect cluster. | Most or all speakers are older adults. Speakers also use English. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| crl | East Cree, Northern | 5,308 (1997 Quebec Ministere de la Sante et des Services Sociaux). | West central Quebec, east coast of lower Hudson Bay and James Bay, communities of Whapmagoostui, Chisasibi, Wemindji, and most people in Eastmain. | Palatalized y-dialect within Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi language complex or dialect cluster. Sometimes classified as Montagnais. | Vigorous. All domains. Language of instruction in lower grades, taught as a subject in upper grades. Speakers also use English. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Taught in primary schools. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1921. | Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Taught in primary schools. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1921. | |
| crm | Cree, Moose | 4,500. All Cree first-language speakers in Canada 87,555 (1998 Statistics Canada). Ethnic population: 5,000 (1982 SIL). | Southern tip of James Bay, Moosonee, Ontario. This community and surrounding area (Moose Factory, Ontario). Has speakers of Moose Cree, East Cree, and Swampy Cree in it. | Nonpalatalized l-dialect within Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi language complex or dialect cluster. | Vigorous. Speakers also use English. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Grammar. NT: 1876. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. Cree syllabary, eastern finals. Grammar. NT: 1876. | |
| crn | Cora, El Nayar | 8,000 in Mexico (1993 SIL). | North central Nayarit. Also spoken in USA. | Jesús María Cora (El Nayar), La Mesa del Nayar Cora (Mesa del Nayar), San Francisco Cora, Presidio de los Reyes Cora. Santa Teresa Cora is distinct enough to need separate literature. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 5%, 1 10%, 2 25%, 3 35%, 4 15%, 5 10%. | Grammar. NT: 1999. | Grammar. NT: 1999. | |
| cro | Crow | 4,280 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 9,840 enrolled in the nation (1999 BIA). | Southern Montana. | Close to Hidatsa. | 77% of Crow people over 66 years old speak the language; no preschoolers do. 80% prefer to use English (1998). Spoken by some parents and older adults (1998). Few high school students speak Crow. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. Bible portions: 1980–1998. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. Bible portions: 1980–1998. | |
| crq | Chorote, Iyo'wujwa | 500 in Paraguay (1991 SIL). 100% monolingual. | Pilcomayo, Boquerón, Chaco. | Close to Hidatsa. | Vigorous. All ages. | Bible portions: 1992. | Bible portions: 1992. | |
| crr | Carolina Algonquian | Extinct. | Formerly spoken in northeastern North Carolina. | Close to Hidatsa. | Vigorous. All ages. | Bible portions: 1992. | Bible portions: 1992. | |
| crs | Seselwa Creole French | 72,700 (1998). Ethnic population: 72,700. | Formerly spoken in northeastern North Carolina. | Seychelles dialect is reported to be the same as Chagos. Structural differences with Mauritius are relatively minor. Not adequately intelligible with Réunion Creole. | Official language since 1977. All domains, home, community, education, politics, health and social affairs, administration, academic discourse, literature, theater, music, art. The first 4 years of education are in Seselwa. Used for some subjects for 5 more years. Positive language attitude. | Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. | |
| crt | Chorote, Iyojwa'ja | 800 (1982 Drayson). | Northeast Salta Province. | A distinct language from Iyo'wujwa Chorote (Drayson). | Official language since 1977. All domains, home, community, education, politics, health and social affairs, administration, academic discourse, literature, theater, music, art. The first 4 years of education are in Seselwa. Used for some subjects for 5 more years. Positive language attitude. | NT: 1997. | NT: 1997. | |
| cru | Carútana | 300 (2000). | Northwest Amazonas, near Curripaco. | Adaru, Arara, Dzaui (Dzawi), Jauarete (Yawarete Tapuya), Jurupari (Yurupari Tapuya), Mapache, Uadzoli (Wadzoli), Urubu. Close to Curripaco and Baniwa. Arara may be distinct. | Official language since 1977. All domains, home, community, education, politics, health and social affairs, administration, academic discourse, literature, theater, music, art. The first 4 years of education are in Seselwa. Used for some subjects for 5 more years. Positive language attitude. | NT: 1997. | NT: 1997. | |
| crv | Chaura | 2,018 (2000 WCD). | Nicobar Islands, Chaura Island. | Adaru, Arara, Dzaui (Dzawi), Jauarete (Yawarete Tapuya), Jurupari (Yurupari Tapuya), Mapache, Uadzoli (Wadzoli), Urubu. Close to Curripaco and Baniwa. Arara may be distinct. | Official language since 1977. All domains, home, community, education, politics, health and social affairs, administration, academic discourse, literature, theater, music, art. The first 4 years of education are in Seselwa. Used for some subjects for 5 more years. Positive language attitude. | NT: 1997. | NT: 1997. | |
| crw | Chrau | 22,567 (1999 census). Few monolinguals. | Dòng Nai Province. The Tamun group live in Tayninh and Binhlong provinces. | Jro, Dor (Doro), Prang, Mro, Voqtwaq, Vajieng, Chalah, Chalun, Tamun. | Some parents pass on Chrau to children. Informally used in education, oral and written use in religious services, oral literature. Positive language attitude. Nearly all speak Vietnamese as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 5,000 can read Chrau, 500 can write it. Grammar. NT: 1982. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 5,000 can read Chrau, 500 can write it. Grammar. NT: 1982. | |
| crx | Carrier | 1,500 (1987 SIL). All Athapaskan language family first-language speakers in Canada 20,090 (1998 Statistics Canada). Ethnic population: 2,100 (1987 SIL). | Central British Columbia, Stuart and Trembleur Lake area. | Necoslie, Pinchie, Tachie, Grand Rapids, Middle River, Portage. | Speakers are mainly adults. Bilingual literacy materials used in schools. Most children and young adults prefer English. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1995. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1995. | |
| cry | Cori | 1,000 (2004). | Kaduna State, Jema'a LGA, one village and associated hamlets. | Necoslie, Pinchie, Tachie, Grand Rapids, Middle River, Portage. | Speakers are mainly adults. Bilingual literacy materials used in schools. Most children and young adults prefer English. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| crz | Cruzeño | Extinct. | Formerly in Southern California, near Santa Barbara. | Was not intelligible with other Chumash varieties. Had multiple dialects. | Speakers are mainly adults. Bilingual literacy materials used in schools. Most children and young adults prefer English. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| csa | Chinantec, Chiltepec | 1,000 (1994). 4,000 in Chiltepec municipio with 250 monolinguals (1990 census). | Oaxaca, San José Chiltepec. | 76% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 20% of Usila and Ojitlán, 13% of Valle Nacional. | Speakers use Spanish as second language, but outlying towns are not as bilingual as the center. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| csb | Kashubian | 3,000 in Poland. Ethnic population: 100,000 or more (1993 T. Salminen). | The left bank of the Lower Vistula in north central Poland, near the Baltic coast, west of the Bay of Gdansk, and a narrow strip inland, southwest from Gdynia. Also spoken in Canada. | Kashubian Proper, Slovincian. German influences in the language. There are transitional dialects between Kashubian Proper, Slovenian, and Polish. | The Slovincian dialect is extinct. Few children speakers of Kashubian Proper. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| csc | Catalonian Sign Language | 18,000 (1994). | Catalonia. | An indigenous sign language, quite distinct from Spanish Sign Language. About 50% intelligibility by users of Spanish Sign Language. | The Slovincian dialect is extinct. Few children speakers of Kashubian Proper. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| csd | Chiangmai Sign Language | No estimate available. | Chiangmai. | Related to present sign languages in Laos and Viet Nam (Haiphong, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City). A distinct language from Thai Sign Language. | Still remembered by signers over 45 years old in Chiangmai. Younger signers use Modern Thai Sign Language. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| cse | Czech Sign Language | No estimate available. | Chiangmai. | Partially intelligible with French Sign Language. | Used since 1786 when deaf schools began. Sign language used in school different from that used by adults outside. Signed interpretation required in court. Some provided for college students and at important public events. There is sign language instruction for parents of deaf children. More than one sign language used in the country. There is a manual alphabet for spelling. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | |
| csf | Cuba Sign Language | No estimate available. | Chiangmai. | Partially intelligible with French Sign Language. | Used since 1786 when deaf schools began. Sign language used in school different from that used by adults outside. Signed interpretation required in court. Some provided for college students and at important public events. There is sign language instruction for parents of deaf children. More than one sign language used in the country. There is a manual alphabet for spelling. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | |
| csg | Chilean Sign Language | No estimate available. | Chiangmai. | Partially intelligible with French Sign Language. | Used since 1786 when deaf schools began. Sign language used in school different from that used by adults outside. Signed interpretation required in court. Some provided for college students and at important public events. There is sign language instruction for parents of deaf children. More than one sign language used in the country. There is a manual alphabet for spelling. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. | |
| csh | Chin, Asho | 1,422 in Bangladesh (1981 census). | Chittagong Hills. | Chittagong, Lemyo, Minbu, Saingbaun, Sandoway, Thayetmyo. | Speakers are quite bilingual in Burmese. | NT: 1954. | NT: 1954. | |
| csi | Miwok, Coast | Extinct. | Formerly in California, coast from San Francisco Bay to Bodega Bay. | Bodega, Huimen, Marin Miwok. | Members of the ethnic group now speak English. | NT: 1954. | NT: 1954. | |
| csl | Chinese Sign Language | Ethnic population: 3,000,000 deaf persons in China (1986 Gallaudet Univ.). | Also used in Malaysia, Taiwan. | Shanghai Sign Language. There are several dialects, of which Shanghai is the most influential. Few signs of foreign origin. The varieties used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Malaysia may have changed. | Schools and workshops or farms for the deaf are channels of dissemination. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| csm | Miwok, Central Sierra | 12. Population includes 6 Eastern Central Sierra, 6 Western Central Sierra (1994 L. Hinton). Ethnic population: Possibly 5,000 all Miwok (2000 Yamamoto). | California, upper valleys of the Stanislause and Tuolumne. | Eastern Central Sierra Miwok, Western Central Sierra Miwok. A separate language from other Miwok varieties. | Speakers are shifting to English. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| csn | Colombian Sign Language | 50,000 deaf in Bogotá in 1992. | California, upper valleys of the Stanislause and Tuolumne. | Some signs are similar to those in sign languages of El Salvador, Spain, and the USA. | There are at least 4 deaf schools (begun in 1924); 2 in Bogotá and 2 in Medellín, and 3 other deaf institutions. Some schools use sign language in the classroom. Interpreters are provided at important public events, and for college students. Many sign language classes for hearing people. There is a committee on the national sign language, and an organization for sign language teachers. Little research. It is not clear how many deaf persons know a sign language. Half of school age children are speakers. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | TV. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| cso | Chinantec, Sochiapan | 5,800 (2000 SIL). 725 monolinguals (1990 census). Ethnic population: 6,000. | North Oaxaca, Cuicatlán: San Pedro Sochiapan, Retumbadero, San Juan Zautla, Santiago Quetzalapa, San Juan Zapotitlán. | 66% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 56% of Chiltepec, 45% of Usila, 11% of Tepetotutla. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral use in local administration, commerce. A few teachers try to teach it in school. Oral and written use in church. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 15%, 1 15%, 2 30%, 3 30%, 4 9%, 5 1%. 10 to 20 know some English. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| csq | Croatia Sign Language | No estimate available. | North Oaxaca, Cuicatlán: San Pedro Sochiapan, Retumbadero, San Juan Zautla, Santiago Quetzalapa, San Juan Zapotitlán. | 66% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 56% of Chiltepec, 45% of Usila, 11% of Tepetotutla. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral use in local administration, commerce. A few teachers try to teach it in school. Oral and written use in church. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 15%, 1 15%, 2 30%, 3 30%, 4 9%, 5 1%. 10 to 20 know some English. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| csr | Costa Rican Sign Language | No estimate available. | North Oaxaca, Cuicatlán: San Pedro Sochiapan, Retumbadero, San Juan Zautla, Santiago Quetzalapa, San Juan Zapotitlán. | May be related to Providencia Sign Language. Lexical similarity 60% with ASL. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral use in local administration, commerce. A few teachers try to teach it in school. Oral and written use in church. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 15%, 1 15%, 2 30%, 3 30%, 4 9%, 5 1%. 10 to 20 know some English. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| css | Ohlone, Southern | Extinct. | Formerly in north central California, Monterrey and San Benito counties. | Monterey, Mutsun (San Juan Bautista), Rumsen (Runsien, San Carlos, Carmel). | Became extinct in the 1950s. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| cst | Ohlone, Northern | Extinct. | Formerly in north central California, Monterrey and San Benito counties. | East Bay, San Francisco, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Soledad. | Some Ohlones are collecting and studying language materials. Lost its fluent speakers in the 18th or early 19th centuries. Subdialects of East Bay were Huchiun (Juichun), Niles (Chocheño), San José, San Lorenzo. Soledad may be transitional between Northern and Southern Ohlone. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | 10% can read it, 5% can write it. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. | |
| csw | Cree, Swampy | 4,500 (1982 SIL). All Cree first-language speakers in Canada 60,000 (1991 M. Dale Kinkade). Ethnic population: 5,000. | Ontario, along the coast of Hudson Bay and northern west coast of James Bay, and inland into Saskatchewan. | Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree. Both nonpalatalized n-dialect and l-dialect within Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi language complex or dialect cluster. | Vigorous. Speakers also use English. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Cree syllabary, western finals. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Cree syllabary, western finals. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | |
| csy | Chin, Siyin | 10,000 (1991 UBS). | Chin Hills. | Close to Paite Chin. | Vigorous. Speakers also use English. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| csz | Coos | 1 or 2 (1962 Chafe). Ethnic population: 250 (1977 SIL). | Southern Oregon coast. | Close to Paite Chin. | Speakers have shifted to English. Possibly extinct. | NT: 1995. | NT: 1995. | |
| cta | Chatino, Tataltepec | 4,000 (1990 census). 470 monolinguals. | Southeastern Oaxaca, Juquila District, extreme west lowland Chatino area, in the towns of Tataltepec de Valdez and San Pedro Tututepec, and a few speakers in nearby Spanish population centers. | 38% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 35% of Panixtlahuaca, 33% of Nopala, 27% of Zacatepec. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 1%, 1 9%, 2 65%, 3 20%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1981. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1981. | |
| ctc | Chetco | 5 (1962 Chafe). Ethnic population: 100 possibly (1977 SIL). | Southern coast, Oregon. | 38% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 35% of Panixtlahuaca, 33% of Nopala, 27% of Zacatepec. | Speakers have shifted to English. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1981. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1981. | |
| ctd | Chin, Tedim | 155,000 in India (1990 BAP). | Mizoram (north), Manipur (south). | Sokte, Kamhau (Kamhow, Kamhao). | Trade language of Tiddim political subdivision. | Poetry. Bible: 1983. | Poetry. Bible: 1983. | |
| cte | Chinantec, Tepinapa | 8,000 (1990 census). 2,500 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Choapan District, Santiago Jocotepec Municipio: San Pedro Tepinapa; San Juan Petlapa Municipio: Santa María Lovani, San Juan Toavela, and Santa Isabel Cajonos. Very remote area. | 79% intelligibility of Comaltepec, 87% to 68% of Lalana, 24% of Lealao, 23% of Ozumacín. | Vigorous. Most children are monolingual when they start school. Some speakers also use Spanish. | Poetry. Bible: 1983. | Poetry. Bible: 1983. | |
| cti | Chol, Tila | 43,870 (2000 WCD). 10,000 monolinguals. | Chiapas, Tila, Vicente Guerrero, Chivalito, Limar. | 86% intelligibility of Sabanilla, 82% of Tumbalá. | Vigorous. Most children are monolingual when they start school. Some speakers also use Spanish. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | |
| ctl | Chinantec, Tlacoatzintepec | 2,000 (1990 census). 550 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, San Juan Bautista Tlacoatzintepec, San Pedro Alianza, Santiago Quetzalapa, San Juan Zapotitlán. | 85% intelligibility of Chiltepec (closest, lower in outlying areas), 84% of Usila, 74% of Sochiapan, 15% of Tepetotutla. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 40%, 2 9%, 3 1%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | |
| ctm | Chitimacha | Extinct. Ethnic population: 300 (1977 SIL). | Southern Louisiana. | 85% intelligibility of Chiltepec (closest, lower in outlying areas), 84% of Usila, 74% of Sochiapan, 15% of Tepetotutla. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 40%, 2 9%, 3 1%, 4 0%, 5 0%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | |
| ctn | Chhintange | 1,500 (2003). | Koshi Zone, Lower Arun Region, Dhankuta District, Chhintang Panchayat, Sambhung and Pokhare, and Ankhisalla Panchayat, Dandagaon. | Probably not intelligible with Bantawa, although sometimes considered a dialect of it because of ethnic similarities. | The ethnic group has largely shifted to Bantawa or Nepali (Bradley 1996); UNESCO reports there may be more vitality than formerly supposed. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1976. | |
| cto | Emberá-Catío | 40 in Panama (1982 SIL). | Upper Sinu, San Jorge, San Pedro, Murri rivers. Also spoken in Panama. | Probably not intelligible with Bantawa, although sometimes considered a dialect of it because of ethnic similarities. | A few use Spanish as second language. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1975–1987. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1975–1987. | |
| ctp | Chatino, Western Highland | 12,000 (2000 SIL). 6,000 monolinguals (1990 census). | Southwestern Oaxaca, Juquila District, towns of Panixtlahuaca, San Juan Quiahije, and Yaitepec; villages of Ixtapan, Tepenixtelahuaca, Ixpantepec, and Amialtepec, plus various rancherías. | Panixtlahuaca Chatino, San Juan Quiahije Chatino, Yaitepec Chatino. 71% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 66% of Nopala, 46% of Zacatepec, 32% of Tataltepec. Yaitepec has 80% intelligibility of Nopala, 78% of Panixtlahuaca, 20% of Tataltepec. | Vigorous. 1 or 2 speakers of other languages speak Chatino. All domains. Oral use in local administration, commerce, religious services, some in elementary and secondary education. All ages. Positive language attitude. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 60%, 1 30%, 2 9.95%, 3 .05%, 4 0%, 5 0%. Yaitepec is one of the most monolingual Chatino towns. 10 can also speak English, 10 to 20 speak either Tataltepec Chatino or Zenzontepec Chatino. | 500 can read it, 50 can write it. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1992. | 500 can read it, 50 can write it. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1992. | |
| cts | Bicolano, Northern Catanduanes | 122,035 (2000). | Luzon, Northern Catanduanes, east of Bicol. | Comprehension of Naga 68%. | A population sample had 66% comprehension of Tagalog narrative. | 500 can read it, 50 can write it. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1992. | 500 can read it, 50 can write it. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1992. | |
| ctu | Chol, Tumbalá | 90,000 (1992). 30,000 monolinguals. Population includes 10,000 in Sabanilla. | North central Chiapas, Tumbalá, Sabanilla, Misijá, Limar, Chivalita, Vicente Guerrero. | Comprehension of Naga 68%. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 25%, 2 20%, 3 3%, 4 1%, 5 1%. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1977–1992. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1977–1992. | |
| ctz | Chatino, Zacatepec | 1,000 (1990 census). | Southeastern Oaxaca, village of San Marcos Zacatepec and Juquila. | 66% intelligibility of Nopala, 61% of Panixtlahuaca, 57% of Yaitepec, 6% of Tataltepec. Lengthened word forms are like Zenzontepec Chatino. Similar to Lachao-Yolotepec Chatino in some respects, but geographically and socioeconomically separated. | Spoken in Zacatepec. Virtually extinct in Juquila with 2 older adult men speakers. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1977–1992. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1977–1992. | |
| cua | Cua | 27,766 (1999 census). | Quang Ngai and Quang Nam provinces. | Kol (Kor, Cor, Co, Col, Dot, Yot), Traw (Tràu, Dong). | Spoken in Zacatepec. Virtually extinct in Juquila with 2 older adult men speakers. | Bible portions: 1973. | Bible portions: 1973. | |
| cub | Cubeo | 150 in Brazil (1986 SIL). | Northwest Amazonas, near São Gabriel. | Kol (Kor, Cor, Co, Col, Dot, Yot), Traw (Tràu, Dong). | Trade language. Vigorous. Cubeo is the lingua franca for the northwest Vaupés area. All domains, home, religion, commerce. About 5% of the population are 7 years old or younger. Positive language attitude. Most speakers also use other Tucanoan languages, Spanish, Portuguese. | Literacy rate in first language: 35%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Written form used for religion and commerce. Both oral and written in primary school. Roman script. Newspapers. NT: 1970–1989. | Literacy rate in first language: 35%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Written form used for religion and commerce. Both oral and written in primary school. Roman script. Newspapers. NT: 1970–1989. | |
| cuc | Chinantec, Usila | 9,000 (1990 census). 2,200 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, San Felipe Usila plus 12 towns, and 1 in Veracruz (Pueblo Doce). | 48% intelligibility of Tlacoatzintepec (closest), 33% of Palantla, 32% of Sochiapan, 31% of Ojitlán. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 50%, 1 30%, 2 10%, 3 7%, 4 2%, 5 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1983. | Literacy rate in first language: 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 20%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1983. |
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