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| code | name_en | population | region | name_alt | dialects | language_use | development | comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| cfd | Cara | 3,000 (1999 R. Blench). | Plateau State, Bassa LGA, Teriya village. | Central Bohemian, Czecho-Moravian, Hanak, Lach (Yalach), Northeast Bohemian, Southwest Bohemian. All Czech and Slovak dialects are inherently intelligible to each other's speakers. | The adults think that younger people are shifting to Hausa. They tend to know Hausa, and some youth also speak English. They generally do not speak the languages of their neighbors. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | |
| cfg | Como Karim | 11,386 (2000 WCD). | Taraba State, Jalingo, Karim Lamido LGAs, near Lau. | Central Bohemian, Czecho-Moravian, Hanak, Lach (Yalach), Northeast Bohemian, Southwest Bohemian. All Czech and Slovak dialects are inherently intelligible to each other's speakers. | The adults think that younger people are shifting to Hausa. They tend to know Hausa, and some youth also speak English. They generally do not speak the languages of their neighbors. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | |
| cga | Changriwa | 688 (2003 SIL). | East Sepik Province. | Related languages: Mekmek, Kyenele, Biwat, Bun. | The adults think that younger people are shifting to Hausa. They tend to know Hausa, and some youth also speak English. They generally do not speak the languages of their neighbors. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | Grammar. Bible: 1380–1980. | |
| cgc | Kagayanen | 25,000 (2000 SIL). Few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 25,000. | Palawan Province, Cagayan Island, between Negros and Palawan, and communities on the coast of Palawan, and in Coron Municipality in the Busuanga Region of northern Palawan. Also clusters in Iloilo Province, Silay, Negros and Manila. | Related languages: Mekmek, Kyenele, Biwat, Bun. | Speakers are shifting to Tagalog. All domains. Some oral use in local administration, commerce, religion, some schools. Letters, oral literature. Most speak Tagalog and some English. Many speak Cuyonon and one or more Visayan languages as well. Tagalog considered appropriate for school, market, church, reading. | Literacy rate in first language: 85%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Roman script. Bible portions: 1983–1994. | Literacy rate in first language: 85%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Roman script. Bible portions: 1983–1994. | |
| cgk | Chocangacakha | 20,000 (1993 Van Driem). | East of Dzongkha, in lower areas of Monggar District, Tsamang and Tsakaling villages, and Lhuntsi District, Kurmet village. | Related to Dzongkha. | Speakers are shifting to Tagalog. All domains. Some oral use in local administration, commerce, religion, some schools. Letters, oral literature. Most speak Tagalog and some English. Many speak Cuyonon and one or more Visayan languages as well. Tagalog considered appropriate for school, market, church, reading. | Literacy rate in first language: 85%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Roman script. Bible portions: 1983–1994. | Literacy rate in first language: 85%. Literacy rate in second language: 75%. Roman script. Bible portions: 1983–1994. | |
| cha | Chamorro | 14,205 in Northern Mariana Islands (1990). Population includes 11,466 on on Saipan (1990), 1,502 on Rota (1990), 1,231 on Tinian (1990); 62,500 on Guam (1991 Bender and Rehg). | Alamagan Island. | Chamorro, Rotanese Chamorro. | National language. A trade language on Saipan. 90,000 including second-language users. Some bilingualism in English. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | |
| chb | Chibcha | Extinct. | Central highlands. | Chamorro, Rotanese Chamorro. | The Chibcha people are still located near the towns of Tocancipa, Cota, Gachancipa and Tenjo. No speakers are left. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | |
| chc | Catawba | Extinct. Ethnic population: 500 (1977 SIL). | Near Rock Hill, northern South Carolina. | There were several dialects. | The last fluent speaker died prior to 1960. Members of the ethnic group now speak English. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1908–1992. | |
| chd | Chontal, Highland Oaxaca | 3,600 (1990 census). | Southernmost part of Oaxaca, west of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, San José Chiltepec, San Lucas Ixcatepec, plus 15 towns. | There were several dialects. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 1%, 1 2%, 2 70%, 3 22%, 4 5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 60% to 100%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1991. | Literacy rate in first language: 60% to 100%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1991. | |
| che | Chechen | 3,000 in Jordan (1993 Johnstone). | In 2 or 3 villages mixed among Adygey and Arabic speakers. | Ploskost, Itumkala (Shatoi), Melkhin, Kistin, Cheberloi, Akkin (Aux). Melkhi is the transitional dialect to Ingush. Chechen is at least partially intelligible with Ingush, more so with contact. | The largest Nakh-Daghestanian language. Used in publishing. Most speakers are quite fluent in Russian. | Taught in primary schools. Cyrillic script. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1986–1995. | Taught in primary schools. Cyrillic script. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1986–1995. | |
| chf | Chontal, Tabasco | 55,000 (1995 census). | North central and southern Tabasco, 21 towns. | Tamulté de las Sábanas Chontal, Buena Vista Chontal, Miramar Chontal. Speakers of all dialects understand San Carlos Macuspana 80% to 94%. | The largest Nakh-Daghestanian language. Used in publishing. Most speakers are quite fluent in Russian. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | |
| chg | Chagatai | Extinct. | North central and southern Tabasco, 21 towns. | Tamulté de las Sábanas Chontal, Buena Vista Chontal, Miramar Chontal. Speakers of all dialects understand San Carlos Macuspana 80% to 94%. | The largest Nakh-Daghestanian language. Used in publishing. Most speakers are quite fluent in Russian. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | |
| chh | Chinook | 12 speakers of Kiksht dialect (1996). Ethnic population: 300 possibly (1977 SIL). | Lower Columbia River, Oregon, and Washington. | Klatsop (Tlatsop), Clackama, Kiksht. | Speakers have shifted to English. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | Dictionary. NT: 1977. | |
| chj | Chinantec, Ojitlán | 22,000 (1990 census). 2,800 monolinguals. | Northern Oaxaca, San Lucas Ojitlán, including 4 towns and 15 rancherías, and Veracruz, Hidalgotitlán and Minatitlán municipios. Most speakers have been relocated because a dam flooded their land in 1991. | 49% intelligibility of Sochiapan (closest), 43% of Usila, 39% of Palantla, 31% of Chiltepec. | Speakers have shifted to English. | NT: 1968. | NT: 1968. | |
| chl | Cahuilla | 7 to 20 (1994 L. Hinton). Ethnic population: 35 (1990 census). | Southern California, San Gorgonio Pass and Mohave Desert areas. | 49% intelligibility of Sochiapan (closest), 43% of Usila, 39% of Palantla, 31% of Chiltepec. | Speakers have shifted to English. All speakers are older adults. | NT: 1968. | NT: 1968. | |
| chn | Chinook Wawa | 17 in the USA (1990 census). | Formerly used along the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska. All speakers are probably now scattered. | Consists mainly of words from Chinook, with a large admixture of words from Nootka, Canadian French, and English. | Trade language. Speakers are shifting to English. Formerly used widely during the 19th century between Indian and White, and between speakers of different languages. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1912. | Dictionary. Bible portions: 1912. | |
| cho | Choctaw | 9,211 (2000). Ethnic population: 120,400 including 111,400 in Oklahoma (1998 Choctaw Language Department, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma). | Principally in southeastern Oklahoma (McCurtain County) and east central Mississippi. Some in Louisiana and Tennessee. | Recent reports indicate that Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. | Most children prefer English. All speakers older than 45 years. Some children are being raised speaking Choctaw in Mississippi. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1848. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 75% to 100%. NT: 1848. | |
| chp | Chipewyan | 4,000 (1995 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 6,000 (1995 M. Krauss). | Northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, southeastern Northwest Territories (Snowdrift and Fort Resolution). Communities of Fort Smith, Fort Chipewyan, Wolliston Post, Buffalo Narrows, Brochet, and Reindeer Lake are some of the communities. | Yellowknife. | Speakers include children in some places (1995). | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1881. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1881. | |
| chq | Chinantec, Quiotepec | 8,000 (1998). 1,750 monolinguals. | Oaxaca, Ixtlán District: San Juan Quiotepec, Reforma, Maninaltepec, San Pedro Yolox, Rosario Temextitlán; Oaxaca, Etla District: San Juan Bautista Atatlah. | Yolox Chinanteco. 87% intelligibility of Comaltepec (closest, lower in outlying areas), 7% of Tepetotutla. The highland Chinantec languages share a complexity of vowel length and tone extensions that Tepetotutla and Palantla do not have. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 35%, 1 20%, 2 15%, 3 15%, 4 10%, 5 5%. | NT: 1983. | NT: 1983. | |
| chr | Cherokee | 15,000 to 22,500. 130 monolinguals. Population includes 14,000 speakers on Oklahoma rolls (1986 Durbin Feeling, Cherokee Nation, OK), 1,000 in North Carolina (1997 Robin Sabino). Ethnic population: 308,132 (1990 census) including 70,000 on Oklahoma rolls (1986 D. Feeling), 9,800 in Eastern Band (1997 Robin Sabino). | Eastern and northeastern Oklahoma and Cherokee Reservation, Great Smokey Mountains, western North Carolina. | Elati (Lower Cherokee, Eastern Cherokee), Kituhwa (Middle Cherokee), Otali (Upper Cherokee, Western Cherokee, Overhill Cherokee), Overhill-Middle Cherokee. | Vigorous in some Oklahoma communities. Elsewhere most younger speakers prefer English. The Elati dialect is extinct. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | |
| chs | Chumash | Extinct. Ethnic population: 156 (2000 A. Yamamoto). | Southern California coast near Santa Barbara. | Inherently unintelligible Chumash varieties formerly spoken included Obispeño, Ineseño, Purisimeño, Barbareño, Ventureño, and Cruzeño (Island Chumash, Isleño), named after the missions to which they were brought. Marianne Mithun says it is not Hokan. | Extinct since 1965. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | |
| cht | Cholón | Extinct. | Valley of the Huallaga River from Tingo María to Valle. | Ruhlen says it is Andean. Adelaar says it is in the Hibito-Cholon family. | Extinct in 2000 (2000 Wise). Members of the ethnic group now speak Quechua. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | Literacy rate in first language: 15% to 20% can read it, 5% can write it (1986 Cherokee Heritage Center). Now being taught in schools, churches, and other classes (1986 Cherokee Advocate). Sequoyah syllabary. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1850–1951. | |
| chu | Slavonic, Old Church | Extinct. | Valley of the Huallaga River from Tingo María to Valle. | Ruhlen says it is Andean. Adelaar says it is in the Hibito-Cholon family. | Used as liturgical language of various Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic churches. | Bible: 1581–1751. | Bible: 1581–1751. | |
| chv | Chuvash | 1,800,000 in Russia (2001 Johnstone and Mandryk). Population total all countries: 1,834,394. | Chuvashia, east of Moscow, near the Volga River. Cheboksary is their capital. About half live in towns (1995). Also spoken in Estonia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan. | Anatri, Viryal. The only extant language in the Bolgar branch of Turkic. | 200,000 second-language speakers. About 80% can use Russian as second language. | Cyrillic script. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. NT: 1904–1911. | Cyrillic script. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. NT: 1904–1911. | |
| chx | Chantyal | 2,000 (1997 Michael Noonan). Ethnic population: 9,814. | Dhaulagiri Zone, Myagdi District, Kali Gandaki River valley. Ethnic Chantel also in Baglung District. | Related to Gurung, Manang, Tamang, Thakali (Noonan). | Chantel appears to be decreasing in use and Nepali increasing. In Baglung, Chantel ceased to be spoken in the 19th century, and only Nepali is used (Noonan 1997). Used in the home villages (Noonan 1997). Chantel not used for singing. Some speakers believe Chantel will be replaced soon (Noonan 1995:257, 260). Everyone also speaks Nepali. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| chy | Cheyenne | 1,721 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 5,000 (1987 SIL). | Northern Cheyenne Reservation, southeastern Montana; associated with Arapaho in western Oklahoma. | Related to Gurung, Manang, Tamang, Thakali (Noonan). | Northern Cheyenne in Montana have a summer camp for children, where 5 fluent speakers teach the language (1998). In Montana many parents and older adults speak the language but younger ones use English. In Oklahoma most speakers are older adults. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 100%. Grammar. NT: 1934. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 100%. Grammar. NT: 1934. | |
| chz | Chinantec, Ozumacín | 5,000 (2000 SIL). 260 monolinguals (1990 census). | Northeast Oaxaca, 3 towns: San Pedro Ozumacín, Ayotzintepec, Santiago Progreso. | Ayotzintepec. Ozumacín town has slight dialect difference from others. 63% intelligibility of Palantla (closest), 22% of Lalana and Valle Nacional. | Half of parents pass it on to children. Most domains, local administration, commerce, some in religious services. All ages. Speakers view Chinantec as inferior to Spanish, but continue to use it. 3,500 speak some Spanish. Some speak some Palantla Chinantec. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 15 can read it, 4 can write it. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 15 can read it, 4 can write it. NT: 2003. | |
| cia | Cia-Cia | 15,000 (1986 SIL). | Southeast Sulawesi, south Buton Island. | Kaesabu, Sampolawa (Mambulu-Laporo), Wabula, Masiri. Wabula dialect has subdialects Wabula, Burangasi, Wali, Takimpo, Kondowa, Holimombo. Lexical similarity 93% with Masiri, 74% with Kambe-Kambero, 69% with Busoa, 67% with Lantoi, 66% with Liabuku, 61% with Wolio, 60% with Muna. | Speakers also use Wolio. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 15 can read it, 4 can write it. NT: 2003. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. 15 can read it, 4 can write it. NT: 2003. | |
| cib | Gbe, Ci | 25,000 (2002 SIL). | Mono Province, Lalo Subprefecture. | A member of the Gbe language cluster. Ci is very close linguistically to Fon and is considered to be the same by Ci speakers. Lexical similarity 80% with Fon, 77% with Ayizo, 59% with Aja. | All domains. French used in schools and government offices. Fon used for literacy classes and for public reading of Scriptures in churches. Comprehension of Fon is very high. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. | |
| cic | Chickasaw | 1,000 (1987 Munro and Willmond). Ethnic population: 35,000 to 37,000 (1999 Chickasaw nation). | Principally in south central Oklahoma, from Byng or Happyland (near Ada) in the north, and from Davis or Ardmore in the west to Fillmore and Wapanucka in the east. Some in Los Angeles, California. | Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. | Speakers are shifting to English. Most speakers older than 50 years. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cid | Chimariko | Extinct. Ethnic population: No members of the ethnic group left (1997 K. Turner). | Northwest California. | Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. | Speakers are shifting to English. Most speakers older than 50 years. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cie | Cineni | 3,000 (1998). | Borno State, Gwoza LGA, Cineni village. | Choctaw speakers find Chickasaw to be unintelligible. | Speakers are shifting to English. Most speakers older than 50 years. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cih | Chinali | 500 to 1,000 (1996). | Himachal Pradesh, throughout Lahul Valley, especially in Pattan Valley, Gushal village. | Speakers say Chinali is closely related to Sanskrit. | Speakers are shifting to English. Most speakers older than 50 years. | Devanagari script. | Devanagari script. | |
| cik | Kinnauri, Chitkuli | 1,060 (1998). | Himachal Pradesh, Kinnaur District, Chitkul and Rakchham villages along the Baspa River in the Sangla Valley. | Lexical similarity 46% with Kinnauri, 51% with Jangshung, 43% with Shumcho, 38% with Sunam. | Speakers also use Kinnauri. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | |
| cim | Cimbrian | 2,230. Population includes 500 in Lusernese Cimbrian in Trentino Alto Oolige 40 km southeast from Trento, plus 1,500 Sette Comuni Cimbrian (40% of Roana (Rowan), 70% of Messaselva di Roana Rotzo) in Veneto around 60 km north of Vicenza (1978 H. Kloss), and 230 or 65% of Giazza (Ijetzan) Veneto, 43 km northeast of Verona (1992 R. Zamponi). There were 22,700 speakers in Sieben Gemeinde and 12,400 in Dreizehn Gemeinde in 1854. | Northeast Italy, Sette and Tredici Comuni (Sieben and Dreizehn Gemeinde) south of Trent, towns of Giazza (Glietzen, Ljetzen), Roana (Rabam), Lusern, some in Venetia Province. | Lusernese Cimbrian, Tredici Communi Cimbrian (Tauch), Sette Comuni Cimbrian. Structural and intelligibility differences indicate that the 3 dialects listed could be considered separate languages. Lusernese Cimbrian is heavily influenced by Italian. Heavily influenced by Bajuwarisch dialects. It is sometimes considered to be a dialect of South Bavarian. Different from Bavarian, Walser, and Mocheno. No written influence from Standard German. | Pastors preached in Cimbrian until the late 19th century. Attempts to promote it have been increasing in recent decades. It is taught in some classes. Speakers are all bilingual in Standard Italian and Venetian (Trentine), and many know Standard German. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | |
| cin | Cinta Larga | 1,000 (1995 SIL). | Western Mato Grosso. | Lusernese Cimbrian, Tredici Communi Cimbrian (Tauch), Sette Comuni Cimbrian. Structural and intelligibility differences indicate that the 3 dialects listed could be considered separate languages. Lusernese Cimbrian is heavily influenced by Italian. Heavily influenced by Bajuwarisch dialects. It is sometimes considered to be a dialect of South Bavarian. Different from Bavarian, Walser, and Mocheno. No written influence from Standard German. | Pastors preached in Cimbrian until the late 19th century. Attempts to promote it have been increasing in recent decades. It is taught in some classes. Speakers are all bilingual in Standard Italian and Venetian (Trentine), and many know Standard German. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | |
| cip | Chiapanec | 17 (1990 census). Ethnic population: 32. | State of Chiapas, El Bosque (2), Las Margaritas (2), Ocosingo (4), Palenque (2), Sabanilla (7). | Reported to be quite similar to Chorotega of Costa Rica. | Pastors preached in Cimbrian until the late 19th century. Attempts to promote it have been increasing in recent decades. It is taught in some classes. Speakers are all bilingual in Standard Italian and Venetian (Trentine), and many know Standard German. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Grammar. | |
| cit | Chittagonian | 14,000,000 in Bangladesh (1998 H. Ebersole). | Arakan State. | Rohinga (Akyab). | Used for religious instruction in village mosques. Village women without access to TV do not understand Bengali. Many educated people understand some Bengali, but are not comfortable using it. All education is in Standard Bengali. | Lower literacy rate than most of the country. TV. | Lower literacy rate than most of the country. TV. | |
| ciw | Chippewa | 5,000. Ethnic population: 103,826 in USA (1990 Census Bureau). | Upper Michigan westward to North Dakota. | Upper Michian-Wisconsin Chippewa, Central Minnesota Chippewa, Red Lake Chippewa, Minnesota Border Chippewa. Turtle Mountain in North Dakota shares features with Central Minnesota. Red Lake includes Northwest Angle on shore of Lake of the Woods. Nett Lake on the Minnesota border is closely related to Lac la Croix (Rainy River Ojibwa of Northwestern Ojibwa) in Ontario. | Concerted effort via language teaching in public schools and other efforts to reverse decline. Most or all speakers are older adults. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1833–1854. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1833–1854. | |
| ciy | Chaima | No estimate available. | Eastern Venezuela coastal region. | Upper Michian-Wisconsin Chippewa, Central Minnesota Chippewa, Red Lake Chippewa, Minnesota Border Chippewa. Turtle Mountain in North Dakota shares features with Central Minnesota. Red Lake includes Northwest Angle on shore of Lake of the Woods. Nett Lake on the Minnesota border is closely related to Lac la Croix (Rainy River Ojibwa of Northwestern Ojibwa) in Ontario. | All speakers also use Spanish. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1833–1854. | Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1833–1854. | |
| cja | Cham, Western | 25,000 in Viet Nam. Population includes 4,000 in Saigon. | An Giang and Tay Ninh provinces and Ho Chi Minh City. | The language differs somewhat from Eastern Cham of central Viet Nam. | There are conflicting reports about whether the people in Thailand still speak Cham or have shifted to Central Thai. | Devanagari script. | Devanagari script. | |
| cje | Chru | 14,978 in Viet Nam (1999 census). | Lam Dong and Binh Thuan provinces. Also spoken in France, USA. | Rai, Noang (La-Dang). Close to Cham. | Speakers also use Vietnamese. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Bible portions: 1955. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Bible portions: 1955. | |
| cjh | Chehalis, Upper | Extinct. Ethnic population: 200 (1977 SIL). | Washington, south of Puget Sound. | A separate language from Lower Chehalis. Not to be confused with Halkomelem on the Chehalis River in British Columbia. | Speakers also use Vietnamese. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cji | Chamalal | 5,000 (1990). Ethnic population: 5,000 (1990 Kibrik). | Southern Dagestan ASSR. | Gadyri (Gachitl-Kvankhi), Gakvari (Agvali-Richaganik-Tsumada-Urukh), Gigatl. Dialects are quite distinct. | Used in the home. 30% to 50% of children speak Chamalal. Strongly supportive language attitude. Avar is used as literary language. | Dictionary. | Dictionary. | |
| cjm | Cham, Eastern | 72,873 in Viet Nam (2002). | Binh Thuan, Ninh Thuan, Dong Nai provinces and Ho Chi Minh City. Also spoken in USA. | Gadyri (Gachitl-Kvankhi), Gakvari (Agvali-Richaganik-Tsumada-Urukh), Gigatl. Dialects are quite distinct. | Used in the home. 30% to 50% of children speak Chamalal. Strongly supportive language attitude. Avar is used as literary language. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Bible portions: 1973. | Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Bible portions: 1973. | |
| cjn | Chenapian | 178 (2003 SIL). | East Sepik Province, on the Sepik River west of Wogamusin. 1 village. | Gadyri (Gachitl-Kvankhi), Gakvari (Agvali-Richaganik-Tsumada-Urukh), Gigatl. Dialects are quite distinct. | Many Tok Pisin speakers. Some youth are learning English. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | Literacy rate in first language: below 5%. Literacy rate in second language: below 5%. | |
| cjo | Ashéninka Pajonal | 12,000 (2002 SIL). Ethnic population: 12,000 (2002 SIL). | Central Gran Pajonal area. | Gadyri (Gachitl-Kvankhi), Gakvari (Agvali-Richaganik-Tsumada-Urukh), Gigatl. Dialects are quite distinct. | Official language. All but a handful in Pajonal Ashéninka speak the language. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 79%, 1 15%, 2 5%, 3 .5%, 4 .5%, 5 0%. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 15%. NT: 2002. | Literacy rate in first language: 20%. Literacy rate in second language: 15%. NT: 2002. | |
| cjp | Cabécar | 8,840 (2000). 7,072 monolinguals (80%). Ethnic population: 9,308 (2000). | Turrialba Region. | Chirripó, Telire, Estrella, Ujarrás. | 95% of the ethnic group are speakers. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 80%, 1–5 20%. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | |
| cjr | Chorotega | Extinct. Ethnic population: 795 (2000). | Some from the ethnic group live near Tuturrialba. They were originally from the Guanacaste Region near the Nicaraguan border. Some were also in El Salvador and Honduras. | Chorotega, Diria, Nagrandan, Nicoya, Orisi, Orotinya (Orotina). | Became extinct in Costa Rica the end of the 18th century, in Nicaragua in the 19th century. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. | |
| cjs | Shor | 9,446 (1989 census). Ethnic population: 16,652 (1989 census). | Altai Krai, Khakass Ao and Gorno-Altai Ao, on the River Tomy. | Mrassa (Mrasu), Kondoma. Some sources combine Shor and Chulym. | There is now a revival of study (I. A. Nevskaya 1996). A language association has been formed, and a chair of Shor was formed at the Pedagogical Institute in Novokuzneck. Few domains except perhaps family. Few or no children speakers. Neutral to strongly supportive language attitude. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| cjv | Chuave | 23,107 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). Population includes 4,290 Sua (1962 Wurm). | Simbu Province, Chuave District. | Elimbari, Kebai, Gomia, Chuave, Sua. Kebai is distinct, but intelligible. | There is now a revival of study (I. A. Nevskaya 1996). A language association has been formed, and a chair of Shor was formed at the Pedagogical Institute in Novokuzneck. Few domains except perhaps family. Few or no children speakers. Neutral to strongly supportive language attitude. | Literacy rate in first language: 50% to 75%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1992–1994. | Literacy rate in first language: 50% to 75%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. NT: 1992–1994. | |
| cjy | Chinese, Jinyu | 45,000,000 (1995). | Mainly in Shanxi Province, with some in Shaanxi and Henan provinces. | Formerly considered to be part of the Xibei Guanhua dialect of Mandarin, but now considered by many to be a separate major variety of Chinese. Unlike Mandarin in having contrastive glottal checked syllables and other distinctive features. | Speakers are reported to be sufficiently bilingual in Standard Chinese to use that literature. | Chinese script. | Chinese script. | |
| cka | Chin, Khumi Awa | 40,900 (2003). | Arakan Hills, coast areas. | The coastal dialect differs from the inland Khumi. | Speakers are reported to be sufficiently bilingual in Standard Chinese to use that literature. | Bible portions: 1939. | Bible portions: 1939. | |
| ckb | Kurdish, Central | 3,250,000 in Iran. | Northwest Iran, primarily Kordestan, West Azerbaijan provinces, areas north of Kermanshah. Mukri is spoken around Mahabad, and Sineyi (Sine'i) is spoken around Sanandaj (Sine). | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | Language of wider communication. | Literacy rate in second language: All people: 1%, boys: 15%. Mukri is also used as a literary language. It is close to the literary language of Central Kurdish (Sorani) used in Iraqi Kurdistan (Hajo 1994). | Literacy rate in second language: All people: 1%, boys: 15%. Mukri is also used as a literary language. It is close to the literary language of Central Kurdish (Sorani) used in Iraqi Kurdistan (Hajo 1994). | |
| ckc | Kaqchikel, Northern | 24,000 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 40,000. | Central highlands, northeastern Chimaltenango Department, San Martín Jilotepeque Municipality in rural areas and towns of San Martín and Santa Ana Chimaltenango. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | There are efforts toward producing a standardized Kaqchikel. All speakers are older than 45 years. Spanish is used with outsiders. In border areas, some people also speak Quiché. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 30% of those under 25. Bible portions: 1982–1991. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 30% of those under 25. Bible portions: 1982–1991. | |
| ckd | Kaqchikel, South Central | 43,000 (1998 SIL). | Pan American highway west of Guatemala City. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 63%. Taught in secondary schools. Bible portions: 1982–1997. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 63%. Taught in secondary schools. Bible portions: 1982–1997. | |
| cke | Kaqchikel, Eastern | 100,000 (1998 SIL). | Northwest of and near Guatemala City, San Juan Sacatepéquez. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 3%. Literacy rate in second language: 45%. Taught in primary schools. NT: 1986. | Literacy rate in first language: 3%. Literacy rate in second language: 45%. Taught in primary schools. NT: 1986. | |
| ckf | Kaqchikel, Southern | 43,000 (1993 SIL). | Area south of Antigua. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | All speakers are older than 30 years. Some speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 73%. Taught in primary schools. NT: 1993. | Literacy rate in first language: 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 73%. Taught in primary schools. NT: 1993. | |
| ckh | Chak | 5,500 in Bangladesh (2002). | Most in Arakan Blue Mountains, Baishari, Banderbon, South, Nrrkhinsorithan, Bishar Chokpra. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | Most Chak living near Banderbon can speak Marma (dialect of Arakanese). | Literacy rate in second language: 25% Bengali. | Literacy rate in second language: 25% Bengali. | |
| cki | Kaqchikel, Santa María de Jesús | 18,000 (2000 SIL). | Southeast of Antigua, Sacatepéquez Department, Santa María de Jesus Municipality. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | Vigorous. Nearly all parents pass Kaqchikel on to children. Most domains, home, local administration and commerce; used in traditional religious services, some religious services have the sermon in Kaqchikel, announcements in Kaqchikel. Few are monolingual, nearly all have moderate fluency in Spanish, less than 100 speak some English. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 54%. 200 people read Kaqchikel, 50 write it. Roman script. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 54%. 200 people read Kaqchikel, 50 write it. Roman script. | |
| ckj | Kaqchikel, Santo Domingo Xenacoj | 5,200 (1991 SIL). | West of Guatemala City on the Pan American highway. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | All ages. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Taught in secondary schools. Bible portions: 1982–1998. | Literacy rate in first language: 2%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Taught in secondary schools. Bible portions: 1982–1998. | |
| ckk | Kaqchikel, Akatenango Southwestern | 500 (1997 SIL). | Municipio of Akatenango, town of Akatenango. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | Speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | |
| ckl | Cibak | 100,000 (1993 CAPRO). | Borno State, Damboa LGA. | Mukri, Sanandaji (Sine'i, Sina'i, Sineyi), Southern Jafi, Pijdari. | Speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | |
| ckq | Kajakse | 10,000 (1983 Bender). | East, Ouaddaï Prefecture, Am Dam Subprefecture. South and southeast of Am Dam. Some refugees in Sudan near the border. | Partially intelligible with Mesmedje and Mubi. | Speakers are shifting to Spanish. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | |
| ckr | Kairak | 750 (1988 SIL). | East New Britain Province, Gazelle Peninsula. | Partially intelligible with Mesmedje and Mubi. | Speakers also use Uramat. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | Literacy rate in second language: 38%. | |
| cks | Tayo | 2,000 (1996 C. Corne). | Southern, Ploum, Mont-Dore, and especially Saint Louis, near Noumea, and Paita. | Not intelligible with French. | Used as first language by some who are also bilingual in French and as second language by others, mainly Wallis Islanders. | Grammar. | Grammar. | |
| ckt | Chukot | 10,000 (1997 M. Krauss). Ethnic population: 15,000. | Chukchi Peninsula, Chukot and Koryak National Okrug, northeastern Siberia. | Uellanskij, Pevekskij, Enmylinskij, Nunligranskij, Xatyrskij, Chaun, Enurmin, Yanrakinot. | 60% of the Chuckchi speak Chukot. Few domains except perhaps family. Nomadic groups have adult and some children speakers. Settled groups have few or no children speakers. Although those under 50 speak Russian with varying proficiency, nomadic groups resist Russian language and culture. People are mildly to strongly supportive toward Chukot. Speakers also use Russian, Yakut, Lamut, or Yukaghir. | Dictionary. Grammar. | Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| cku | Koasati | 200 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 600, including 100 in Texas. | Koasati Reservation near Elton, Louisiana, and Alabama-Koasati Reservation near Livingston, Texas. Others elsewhere; 1 family in Oregon. The language is no longer used in Oklahoma. | The grammars of Koasati and Alabama are significantly different. Less than 50% cognate with Alabama. | More speakers in Louisiana than Texas. The language was being passed down until the last decade. Less than 10 elementary school-age children speak the language. In Louisiana, the people use Koasati in some homes and for some religious services. Young people invariably speak English to all but older adults. Positive language attitude. 30 speakers have limited English proficiency (1992 Rising). Others have high proficiency in English. A few are better speakers of Cajun French than of English. Some also use Alabama or Choctaw. | Written usage is minimal. Roman script. Dictionary. | Written usage is minimal. Roman script. Dictionary. | |
| ckv | Kavalan | 24 (2000 Li). | Northeast coast, above Toucheng to Ilan, nearly to Suao, and inland to Tayal language area. No longer spoken in the original area; a few migrants to the east coast, Hsishe village, Fengpin Township, Hualien County (1990). | Kareovan (Kareowan). | Under 10% of the ethnic group speaks Kavalan. Used only as a home language in 1930. Still spoken in Atayal territory (1987). Used in the home. No children speak Kavalan. Mainly older adult women. Neutral language attitude. They can speak Amis and Taiwanese fluently because they live among them, having migrated into the Amis region. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. | Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. | |
| ckw | Kaqchikel, Western | 77,000 (1998 SIL). | Northern and eastern shores of Lake Atitlán, Departamento de Sololá. | Kareovan (Kareowan). | All speakers are older than 25 years. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| ckx | Caka | 5,000 (1983 Atlas Linguistique du Cameroun). | South West Province, Manyu Division, Akwaya Subdivision, Asaka, Basaka and Batanga villages. | Assaka (Adzu Balaka), Batanga (Adzu Batanga). Lexical similarity 50% with Ipulo, 40% with Balo, Osatu, Iceve-Maci, and Otank, 35% with Esimbi, 30% with Mesaka. Assaka and Batanga have 80% lexical similarity. | Some Ipulo use Caka as second language. Cameroon Pidgin and English used as second languages. English is used for literacy. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| cky | Cakfem-Mushere | 5,000 (1990 SIL). | Plateau State, Mangu LGA. | Kadim-Kaban, Jajura. | Some Ipulo use Caka as second language. Cameroon Pidgin and English used as second languages. English is used for literacy. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| ckz | Kaqchikel-K'iche' Mixed Language | 2,000 (1998 SIL). | Santiago, Sacatepéquez, Santa María Cauque aldea. | Speakers came from the K'iche' area in the colonial period. Older speakers show a base of K'iche'. | The language is changing to become more like South Central Kaqchikel. All speakers are older than 30 years. Speakers are fully bilingual in South Central Cakchiquel and becoming bilingual in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 43%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1996. | |
| cla | Ron | 115,000 (1995). Population includes 20,000 Shagawu. | Plateau State, Bokkos, Barakin-Ladi and Mangu LGAs. | Bokkos (Alis I Run), Daffo-Butura (Lis Ma Run), Monguna (Shagawu, Shagau, Nafunfia, Maleni). | The language is changing to become more like South Central Kaqchikel. All speakers are older than 30 years. Speakers are fully bilingual in South Central Cakchiquel and becoming bilingual in Spanish. | Radio programs. Grammar. | Radio programs. Grammar. | |
| clc | Chilcotin | 2,000 (2000). 100 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 2,500. | West of Williams Lake, south central British Columbia. Seven reserve communities: Alexandria, Toosey, Anahim, Stone, Nemiah, Redstone, Ulkatcho. | Bokkos (Alis I Run), Daffo-Butura (Lis Ma Run), Monguna (Shagawu, Shagau, Nafunfia, Maleni). | Preferred by adults. Most children prefer English. Grandparents pass on the language to some children. Many people decry the perceived loss of Chilcotin among the younger generation. Speakers also use English or Carrier. | Literacy rate in first language: 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Bible portions: 1993. | Literacy rate in first language: 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Bible portions: 1993. | |
| cld | Chaldean Neo-Aramaic | 100,000 to 120,000 in Iraq (1994 Mutzafi). Population total all countries: 206,000. | Originally in central western and northern Iraqi Kurdistan and some in bordering Turkey. Now in Mosul, Baghdad, Basrah, southeastern Iraqi Kurdistan. Also spoken in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Germany, Lebanon, Netherlands, Sweden, Syria, Turkey (Asia), USA. | Mangesh, Alqosh, Tel Kepe, Tisqopa, Bartille, Shirnak-Chizre (Bohtan), Dihok. High intelligibility of Lishana Deni and Ashirat (western dialect group of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic); little or no intelligibilty with other Northeastern Aramaic varieties. Comprehension among all of these improves with contact. | Preferred by adults. Most children prefer English. Grandparents pass on the language to some children. Many people decry the perceived loss of Chilcotin among the younger generation. Speakers also use English or Carrier. | Syriac script. Bible portions: 1992. | Syriac script. Bible portions: 1992. | |
| cle | Chinantec, Lealao | 2,000 (1990 census). 500 monolinguals. | Northeastern Oaxaca, San Juan Lealao, Latani, Tres Arroyos, and La Hondura. | Considered the most divergent of the Chinantec languages. | Vigorous. All domains. Oral and written use in religious services. Oral use in local commerce. All ages. Speakers consider it to be inferior to Spanish, but they continue to use it. Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 5%, 1 45%, 2 50%, 3 0%, 4 0%, 5 0%. There is also some bilingualism in Zapotec. | 50 can read it, 5 can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1980. | 50 can read it, 5 can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1980. | |
| clh | Chilisso | 1,600 to 3,000 (1992 SIL). | Scattered families in the Koli, Palas, Jalkot area of the Indus Kohistan, east bank of the Indus River. | Lexical similarity 70% with Indus Kohistani, 65% to 68% with Gowro, 54% with Bateri, 48% to 56% with Shina. 26% with Torwali, 25% with Kalami. | Socially integrated with the Kohistani Shina, and most or all speak that as first or second language. | 50 can read it, 5 can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1980. | 50 can read it, 5 can write it. Dictionary. NT: 1980. | |
| clk | Idu-Mishmi | 80 in China (1999 Sun Hongkai). 50 are monolingual. | Townships of Xia Chayu (Zayu) and Ba'antong of the Xia Chayu (Zayu) Zone, Chayu County of Nyingchi Prefecture, in southeast Tibet, in the Danba River valley and adjoining mountain slopes, near the Bhutan border. | Closest to Digaro-Mishmi. A different language from Boga'er Lhoba. May be a dialect of Miri. Lexical similarity 7% with Miju-Mishmi, 25% with Digaro-Mishmi (IICCC). | Vigorous. All domains. All ages. Indifferent language attitude. 25 can also speak Chinese or Tibetan. | 27% attended primary school, 31% have some degree of literacy, 0.8% have a university degree. | 27% attended primary school, 31% have some degree of literacy, 0.8% have a university degree. | |
| clm | Clallam | 10 (1997 Timothy Montler). Ethnic population: Several thousands (1997 T. Montler). | Washington, northeastern Olympic Peninsula, Port Angeles. | Close to Saanich. | All speakers are older adults. | 27% attended primary school, 31% have some degree of literacy, 0.8% have a university degree. | 27% attended primary school, 31% have some degree of literacy, 0.8% have a university degree. | |
| clo | Chontal, Lowland Oaxaca | 950 (1990 census). | Southern Oaxaca, Tehuantepec District, San Pedro Huamelula and Santiago Astata. | Close to Saanich. | Bilingual level estimates for Spanish: 0 0%, 1 0%, 2 0%, 3 40%, 4 30%, 5 30%. | Bible portions: 1955. | Bible portions: 1955. | |
| clu | Caluyanun | 30,000 (1994 SIL). | Caluya Islands, Antique. | Semirara. A sample of speakers scored 69% on Hiligaynon narrative comprehension; 62% on Cuyonon. | Speakers also use Hiligaynon. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | |
| clw | Chulym | 500 (1990). Ethnic population: 500 (1990 A. E. Kibrik). | Basin of the Chulym River north of the Altay Mountains, a tributary of the Ob River. | Lower Chulym, Middle Chulym. Close to Shor; some consider them one language. The government considers them separate. | Speakers also use Russian. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | |
| cly | Chatino, Eastern Highland | 2,000 (1993 SIL). | Southeastern Oaxaca, villages of Lachao Pueblo Nuevo and Santa María Yolotepec. | One dialect. Uses lengthened word forms similar to Zenzontepec Chatino. Similar to Zacatepec, but geographically and socioeconomically separated. 87% intelligibility of Yaitepec, 83% of Nopala, 77% of Panixtlahuaca, 21% of Tataltepec. | 30% to 40% of the speakers have low to routine proficiency in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT: 1990. | |
| cma | Maa | 33,338 (1999 census). | Lam Dong, Dong Nai provinces, spread over a wide area. | Sometimes considered a Koho dialect. | 30% to 40% of the speakers have low to routine proficiency in Spanish. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. | |
| cme | Cerma | 1,700 in Côte d'Ivoire (1991). | Five villages around Ouangolodougo, north of Ferkessedougou. | Banfora-Sienena, Niangoloko-Diarabakoko, Soubakanedougou, Gouindougouba. The Gouindougouba dialect is spoken in 1 or 2 villages. Turka is the closest language, but not inherently intelligible. | Used for instruction in grades 1 to 3. All ages. Most also use Jula. Those who have been to school speak some French. | Literacy rate in first language: 12%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% Jula or French. Literacy program run by language committee. Satellite school project. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1995. | Literacy rate in first language: 12%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% Jula or French. Literacy program run by language committee. Satellite school project. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1995. | |
| cmi | Emberá-Chamí | 11,000 (1995 SIL). | Departments of Risaralda, Caldas, Antioquía, Valle, including the Municipio of Caramanta. | Banfora-Sienena, Niangoloko-Diarabakoko, Soubakanedougou, Gouindougouba. The Gouindougouba dialect is spoken in 1 or 2 villages. Turka is the closest language, but not inherently intelligible. | Used for instruction in grades 1 to 3. All ages. Most also use Jula. Those who have been to school speak some French. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | |
| cmk | Chimakum | Extinct. | Washington State, Puget Sound side of Olympic Peninsula. | Banfora-Sienena, Niangoloko-Diarabakoko, Soubakanedougou, Gouindougouba. The Gouindougouba dialect is spoken in 1 or 2 villages. Turka is the closest language, but not inherently intelligible. | Used for instruction in grades 1 to 3. All ages. Most also use Jula. Those who have been to school speak some French. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | |
| cml | Campalagian | 30,000 (1986 SIL). | South Sulawesi, Majene Kabupaten, Polmas, south coast. | Campalagian, Buku. Lexical similarity 50% to 58% with Mandar, 50% to 62% with Bugis, 55% with Bugis Bone, 62% with Bugis Pangkajene, Bugis Sidrap. | Vigorous. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 15%. Bible portions: 1989. | |
| cmn | Chinese, Mandarin | 5,880 in Thailand (1984). | Bangkok, provincial towns, and Kra Peninsula in the south. | Ho (Haw, Cin Haw, Yunnanese, Western Mandarin, Hui, Hui-Tze, Hwei, Panghse, Pantha, Panthe, Pathee). | Official language. 15,000,000 second-language speakers. Many of the 30- to 50-year-old generation in Taiwan are also fluent in Taiwan Min. | Kuoyu taught in all schools. | Kuoyu taught in all schools. | |
| cmo | Mnong, Central | 20,000 in Cambodia (2002). | Northeastern, 80% of Mondolkiri Province, all districts. | Biat, Preh, Bu Nar, Bu Rung, Dih Bri, Bu Dang. | Central Khmer only spoken well by a few individuals. Most have low proficiency. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | |
| cmr | Chin, Mro | 137,765 (2000 WCD). | Arakan State. | Lexical similarity 13% with Mru of Bangladesh. | Central Khmer only spoken well by a few individuals. Most have low proficiency. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | |
| cmt | Camtho | No estimate available. | Soweto, Johannesburg, urban settings. | A development in the 1980s from the original Tsotsitaal, and sometimes called 'Tsotsitaal'. Also described as a basically Zulu or Sotho language with heavy codeswitching and many English and Afrikaans content morphemes. | Mainly used by young people. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | Literacy rate in second language: Low. | |
| cna | Changthang | 10,089 (2000 WCD). | Jammu and Kashmir, Tibetan border area, Changthang Region east and southeast of Leh. | May be intelligible with Ladakhi. | Some multilingualism in Ladakhi, Urdu, Kashmiri, Hindi, or English. | Bodhi script. | Bodhi script. | |
| cnb | Chin, Chinbon | 19,600 (1983). | Kanpetlet, Yaw, Seidoutia, and Paletwa townships. | Lexical similarity 50% with Asho Chin. | Some multilingualism in Ladakhi, Urdu, Kashmiri, Hindi, or English. | Bodhi script. | Bodhi script. | |
| cnc | Côông | 2,000 (2002 Edmondson). | Lai Chau Province, Muong Te District, east of Sila, south of Mang. 4 villages at Ban Nam Luong in Xa Can Ho, Bo Lech in Xa Can Ho, Nam Kha Co area at Ban Bo, Muong Tong at Nam Ke near the Lao border. | Quite different from Akha, Lahu, and Sila of this location. The northern and southern varieties in Viet Nam are different, but inherently intelligible to speakers. Bisu, Pyen, and Mpi are closely related. | Few domains. Spoken by half the children. Mildly supportive language attitude. | Bodhi script. | Bodhi script. | |
| cng | Qiang, Northern | 57,800 (1999). 130,000 in all Qiang languages, including 80,000 in the Qiang nationality and 50,000 in the Tibetan nationality (1990 J-O Svantesson). 198,252 ethnic population in the Qiang nationality (1990 census). | North central Sichuan Province, Mao, Songpan, Heishui, and Beichuan counties. | Yadu, Weigu, Cimulin, Luhua. | Language in decline. Parents are encouraging children to speak Mandarin Chinese. Used in the home. All speakers older than 25 years. Negative language attitude. No monolinguals. Speakers use Chinese or Tibetan as second language. Written Chinese is in use. | Men are more literate than women. Those under 30 are fairly literate in Chinese. Roman script. Radio programs. Grammar. | Men are more literate than women. Those under 30 are fairly literate in Chinese. Roman script. Radio programs. Grammar. | |
| cnh | Chin, Haka | 345,000 Lai in India (1996 UBS). | Mizoram, Chhimtuipui and Aizawi District, southernmost tip; Assam; Meghalaya. | Klangklang (Thlantlang), Zokhua, Shonshe. | Language in decline. Parents are encouraging children to speak Mandarin Chinese. Used in the home. All speakers older than 25 years. Negative language attitude. No monolinguals. Speakers use Chinese or Tibetan as second language. Written Chinese is in use. | Most young people can read in Haka. Taught in primary schools. | Most young people can read in Haka. Taught in primary schools. | |
| cni | Asháninka | 23,750 to 28,500 (2000 SIL). Ethnic population: 25,000 to 30,000 (2000 SIL). | Apurimac, Ene, Perene, Tambo rivers and tributaries. | Close to Ashéninka, Caquinte, Machiguenga. | Official language. Vigorous. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Dictionary. NT: 1972. | Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 15% to 25%. Dictionary. NT: 1972. | |
| cnk | Chin, Khumi | 1,188 in Bangladesh (1981 census). | Assam. | Khami, Khimi. | Speakers also use Burmese. | Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Roman script in India. NT: 1959–1999. | Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Roman script in India. NT: 1959–1999. |
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